Editing Nationalism (section)

==== Africa ====
{{main|African nationalism|History of Africa}}
[[File:The National Archives UK - CO 1069-124-8.jpg|thumb|[[Kenneth Kaunda]], an anti-colonial political leader from [[Zambia]], pictured at a nationalist rally in colonial [[Northern Rhodesia]] (now [[Zambia]]) in 1960]]
In the 1880s the European powers divided up almost all of Africa (only [[Ethiopia]] and [[Liberia]] were independent). They ruled until after World War II when forces of nationalism grew much stronger. In the 1950s and the 1960s, colonial holdings became independent states. The process was usually peaceful but there were several long bitter bloody civil wars, as in Algeria,<ref>Alistair Horne, ''A savage war of peace: Algeria 1954–1962'' (1977).</ref> Kenya<ref>David Anderson, ''Histories of the hanged: The dirty war in Kenya and the end of empire'' (2005).</ref> and elsewhere.

Across Africa, nationalism drew upon the organizational skills that natives had learned in the British and French, and other armies during the world wars. It led to organizations that were not controlled by or endorsed by either the colonial powers or the traditional local power structures that had been collaborating with the colonial powers. Nationalistic organizations began to challenge both the traditional and the new colonial structures and finally displaced them. Leaders of nationalist movements took control when the European authorities exited; many ruled for decades or until they died off. These structures included political, educational, religious, and other social organizations. In recent decades, many African countries have undergone the triumph and defeat of nationalistic fervor, changing in the process the loci of the centralizing state power and patrimonial state.<ref>Gabriel Almond and James S. Coleman, ''The Politics of the Developing Areas'' (1971)</ref><ref>Festus Ugboaja Ohaegbulam, ''Nationalism in colonial and post-colonial Africa'' (University Press of America, 1977).</ref><ref>Thomas Hodgkin, ''Nationalism in Colonial Africa'' (1956)</ref>

[[South Africa]], a British colony, was exceptional in that it became virtually independent by 1931. From 1948, it was controlled by white [[Afrikaner]] nationalists, who focused on racial segregation and white minority rule, known as [[apartheid]]. It lasted until 1994, when [[1994 South African general election|multiracial elections were held]]. The international anti-apartheid movement supported black nationalists until success was achieved,{{Verify source|date=October 2022}} and [[Nelson Mandela]] was elected president.<ref>Nancy L. Clark and William H. Worger, ''South Africa: The rise and fall of apartheid'' (Routledge, 2013).</ref>