Editing Middle Ages (section)

=== Intellectual life ===
{{Main|Renaissance of the 12th century|Medieval philosophy| Medieval literature|Medieval poetry|Medieval medicine of Western Europe}}

During the 11th century, developments in philosophy and theology led to increased intellectual activity. There was a debate between the [[Philosophical realism|realists]] and the [[nominalists]] over the concept of "[[universals]]". Philosophical discourse was stimulated by the rediscovery of [[Aristotle]] and his emphasis on [[empiricism]] and [[rationalism]]. Scholars such as [[Peter Abelard]] (d. 1142) and [[Peter Lombard]] (d. 1164) introduced [[Aristotelian logic]] into theology. In the late 11th and early 12th centuries [[cathedral school]]s spread throughout Western Europe, signalling the shift of learning from monasteries to cathedrals and towns.<ref name=Backman232>Backman ''Worlds of Medieval Europe'' pp. 232–237</ref> Cathedral schools were in turn replaced by the [[medieval university|universities]] established in major European cities.<ref name=Backman247>Backman ''Worlds of Medieval Europe'' pp. 247–252</ref> Philosophy and theology fused in [[scholasticism]], an attempt by 12th- and 13th-century scholars to reconcile authoritative texts, most notably Aristotle and the Bible. This movement tried to employ a systemic approach to truth and reason<ref name=MASchol>Loyn "Scholasticism" ''Middle Ages'' pp. 293–294</ref> and culminated in the thought of [[Thomas Aquinas]] (d. 1274), who wrote the ''[[Summa Theologica]]'', or ''Summary of Theology''.<ref name=Colish295>Colish ''Medieval Foundations'' pp. 295–301</ref>

[[File:Richard of Wallingford.jpg|thumb|left|upright=0.8|A medieval scholar making precise measurements in a 14th-century manuscript illustration]]

[[Chivalry]] and the ethos of [[courtly love]] developed in royal and noble courts. This culture was expressed in the [[vernacular languages]] rather than Latin and comprised poems, stories, legends, and popular songs spread by [[troubadour]]s or [[Minnesänger]]s, or wandering minstrels. Often the stories were written down in the ''[[chansons de geste]]'', or "songs of great deeds", such as ''[[The Song of Roland]]'' or ''[[Hildebrand|The Song of Hildebrand]]''.<ref name=Backman252>Backman ''Worlds of Medieval Europe'' pp. 252–260</ref> Secular and religious histories were also produced.<ref name=Davies349>Davies ''Europe'' p. 349</ref> [[Geoffrey of Monmouth]] (d. c. 1155) composed his ''[[Historia Regum Britanniae]]'', a collection of stories and legends about [[King Arthur|Arthur]].<ref name=SaulGeoffrey>Saul ''Companion to Medieval England'' pp. 113–114</ref> Other works were more clearly history, such as [[Otto von Freising]]'s (d. 1158) ''Gesta Friderici Imperatoris'' detailing the deeds of Emperor Frederick Barbarossa, or [[William of Malmesbury]]'s (d. c. 1143) ''Gesta Regum'' on the kings of England.<ref name=Davies349 />

Legal studies advanced during the 12th century. Both secular law and [[canon law]], or ecclesiastical law, were studied in the High Middle Ages. Secular law, or Roman law, was significantly advanced by the discovery of the ''[[Corpus Juris Civilis]]'' in the 11th century, and by 1100, Roman law was being taught at [[University of Bologna|Bologna]]. This led to the recording and standardisation of legal codes throughout Western Europe. Canon law was also studied, and around 1140, a monk named [[Decretum Gratiani|Gratian]] (fl. 12th century), a teacher at Bologna, wrote what became the standard text of canon law—the ''[[Decretum Gratiani|Decretum]]''.<ref name=Backman237>Backman ''Worlds of Medieval Europe'' pp. 237–241</ref>

Among the results of the Greek and Islamic influence on this period in European history was the replacement of [[Roman numerals]] with the [[decimal]] [[positional number system]] and the invention of [[algebra]], which allowed more advanced mathematics. Astronomy advanced following the translation of [[Ptolemy]]'s ''[[Almagest]]'' from Greek into Latin in the late 12th century. Medicine was also studied, especially in southern Italy, where Islamic medicine influenced the [[Schola Medica Salernitana|school at Salerno]].<ref name=Backman241>Backman ''Worlds of Medieval Europe'' pp. 241–246</ref>