Editing Meditation (section)

==Meditation traditions==
[[File:Brooklyn Museum - Man Meditating in a Garden Setting.jpg|thumb|upright|''Man meditating in a garden setting'' (19th century)]]

===Origins===
The history of meditation is intimately bound up with the religious context within which it was practiced.{{sfn|Everly|Lating|2002|p=199–202}} Rossano suggested that the emergence of the capacity for focused attention, an element of many methods of meditation, may have contributed to the latest phases of human biological evolution.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Rossano |first1=Matt J. |title=Did Meditating Make Us Human? |journal=Cambridge Archaeological Journal |date=February 2007 |volume=17 |issue=1 |pages=47–58 |doi=10.1017/S0959774307000054 |s2cid=44185634 }}</ref> Some of the earliest references to meditation, as well as proto-[[Samkhya]], are found in the [[Upanishads]] of India.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Dhavamony|first=Mariasusai|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=DD0w_IMFA8gC&q=meditation+hinduism&pg=PA243|title=Classical Hinduism|publisher=Università Gregoriana Editrice|year=1982|isbn=978-88-7652-482-0|pages=243–244|language=en|access-date=2020-10-27|archive-date=2023-03-17|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230317095221/https://books.google.com/books?id=DD0w_IMFA8gC&q=meditation+hinduism&pg=PA243|url-status=live}}</ref>{{sfn|Lusthaus|2018}} According to Wynne, the earliest clear references to meditation are in the middle Upanishads and the ''[[Mahabharata]]'' (including the ''[[Bhagavad Gita]]'').<ref>Alexander Wynne, The Origin of Buddhist Meditation. Routledge 2007, p. 51. The earliest reference is actually in the Mokshadharma, which dates to the early Buddhist period.</ref><ref>The Katha Upanishad describes yoga, including meditation. On meditation in this and other post-Buddhist Hindu literature, see {{cite book |first=Randall |last=Collins |title=The Sociology of Philosophies: A Global Theory of Intellectual Change |publisher=Harvard University Press |year=2000 |page=199}}</ref> According to [[Gavin Flood]], the earlier ''[[Brihadaranyaka Upanishad]]'' is describing meditation when it states that "Having become calm and concentrated, one perceives the self ([[Ātman (Hinduism)|Ātman]]) within oneself" (BU 4.4.23).<ref name="Flood">{{Cite book| last=Flood | first=Gavin |author-link=Gavin Flood | year=1996 | title=An Introduction to Hinduism| publisher=Cambridge University Press | pages=[https://archive.org/details/introductiontohi0000floo/page/94 94]–95 |location=Cambridge | isbn=978-0-521-43878-0 |url=https://archive.org/details/introductiontohi0000floo| url-access=registration }}</ref>

===Indian religions===

==== Hinduism ====
{{Main|Hindu meditation}}
{{See also|Yoga}}

[[File:Patanjali Statue.jpg|thumb|A statue of [[Patanjali|Patañjali]] practicing [[Dhyana in Hinduism (Self-knowledge)|dhyana]] in the [[Padmaasana|Padma-asana]] at [[Patanjali Yogpeeth]]]]

There are many schools and styles of meditation within [[Hinduism]].<ref name="Flood" /> In pre-modern and traditional [[Hinduism]], ''Yoga'' and ''Dhyana'' are practised to recognize 'pure awareness', or 'pure consciousness', undisturbed by the workings of the mind, as one's eternal self. In [[Advaita Vedanta]] ''[[jivatman]]'', individual self, is recognized as illusory, and in Reality identical with the omnipresent and [[Nonduality (spirituality)|non-dual]] [[Ātman (Hinduism)|Ātman]]-[[Brahman]]. In the [[Yoga (philosophy)|dualistic Yoga school]] and [[Samkhya]], the Self is called [[Purusha]], a pure consciousness undisturbed by [[Prakriti]], 'nature'. Depending on the tradition, the liberative event is named [[moksha]], vimukti or [[kaivalya]].<ref>{{Cite web |title=Human Development: Kaivalya |url=http://encyclopedia.uia.org/en/development/12338690 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230527025554/http://encyclopedia.uia.org/en/development/12338690 |archive-date=27 May 2023 |access-date=2023-05-26 |website=encyclopedia.uia.org}}</ref>

One of the most influential texts of classical Hindu Yoga is [[Patañjali]]'s [[Yoga Sutras of Patanjali|Yoga sutras]] (c. 400 CE), a text associated with Yoga and Samkhya and influenced by Buddhism,{{refn|group=note|According to {{harvnb|Larson|2008|pp=43–45}}, from Abhidharma Buddhism's idea of ''nirodhasamadhi'' the Yoga Sutras adopt the pursuit of an altered state of awareness. However, unlike Buddhism, which avoids stating whether self and soul exist, Yoga is physicalist and realist, like Samkhya, believing that each individual has a self and soul.{{sfn|Larson|2008|p=43-45}} [[Karel Werner]] writes, "Patanjali's system is unthinkable without Buddhism. As far as its terminology goes there is much in the ''Yoga Sutras'' that reminds us of Buddhist formulations from the [[Pāli Canon]] and even more so from the [[Sarvāstivāda]] [[Abhidharma]] and from [[Sautrāntika]]."<ref>[[Karel Werner]] (1994), ''The Yogi and the Mystic.'' Routledge, {{ISBN|978-0-7007-0272-5}}, page 26</ref> See also D. Wujastyk (2018), ''Some Problematic Yoga Sutras and their Buddhist Background'', in: P. Maas et al., ''Yoga in Transformation. Historical and Contemporary Perspectives on a Global Phenomenon'', Vienna University Press; and Pradeep P. Gokhale (2020), ''The Yogasūtra of Patañjali: A New Introduction to the Buddhist Roots of the Yoga System'', Routledge.}} which outlines [[Ashtanga (eight limbs of yoga)|eight limbs]] leading to [[kaivalya]] ("aloneness") or inner awareness. The first four, known as the "outer limbs," include ethical discipline ([[yamas]]), rules ([[niyamas]]), physical postures ([[āsanas]]), and breath control ([[prāṇāyama]]). The fifth, withdrawal from the senses ([[pratyāhāra]]), transitions into the "inner limbs" that are one-pointedness of mind ([[dhāraṇā]]), meditation ([[Dhyāna in Hinduism|dhyāna]]), and finally [[samādhi]].<ref>{{Cite book |last=Ram |first=Bhava |title=The 8 Limbs of Yoga: Pathway to Liberation |publisher=Deep Yoga |year=2009 |page=170 |language=English}}</ref>

Later developments in Hindu meditation include the compilation of [[Hatha Yoga]] (forceful yoga) compendiums like the [[Hatha Yoga Pradipika]], the development of [[Bhakti yoga]] as a major form of meditation, and [[Tantra]]. Another important Hindu yoga text is the [[Yoga Yajnavalkya]], which makes use of [[Hatha Yoga]] and Vedanta Philosophy.<ref>{{Cite book |last=White |first=David Gordon |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=0ZGrAgAAQBAJ |title=The "Yoga Sutra of Patanjali": A Biography |publisher=Princeton University Press |isbn=978-0691143774 |publication-date=2014 |pages=xiii–xvi, 49}}</ref>

===== Mantra Meditation =====
The [[Bhagavata Purana]] emphasizes that mantra meditation is a key practice for achieving liberation; practitioners can achieve a direct vision of the divine. The text integrates both Vedic and tantric elements, where mantras are not only seen as sacred sounds but as embodiment of the deity. This approach reflects a shift from the impersonal meditation on the sound-form of Brahman ([[Om]]) in the Upanishads to a personal, devotional focus on [[Krishna]] in the Bhagavata Purana.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Holdrege |first=Barbara A. |title=Bhakti and embodiment: fashioning divine bodies and devotional bodies in Kṛṣṇa bhakti |date=2015 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-0-415-67070-8 |series=Routledge Hindu studies series |location=London; New York |pages=272–273}}</ref>

==== Jainism ====
[[File:Lord Mahavira Omniscience.jpg|thumb|Lord [[Mahavir]] attaining omniscience in ''shukla dhyana'', the highest level of meditation]]
{{Main|Jain meditation}}

[[Jainism]] has three elements called the ''[[Ratnatraya]]'' ("Three Jewels"): right perception and faith, right knowledge and right conduct.<ref name="Ratna traya">{{Cite book |first1=Acharya |last1=Mahapragya |title=Jain Yog |publisher=Aadarsh Saahitya Sangh |chapter=Foreword |year=2004}}</ref> Meditation in Jainism aims to reach and to remain in the pure state of soul which is believed to be pure consciousness, beyond any attachment or aversion. The practitioner strives to be just a knower-seer (''gyata-drashta''). Jain meditation can be broadly categorized into ''Dharma dhyana'' and ''Shukla dhyana''. ''Dharma dhyana'' is discriminating knowledge (bheda-vijñāna) of the tattvas (truths or fundamental principles), while ''shukla dhyana'' is meditation proper.

Jainism uses meditation techniques such as ''pindāstha-dhyāna, padāstha-dhyāna, rūpāstha-dhyāna, rūpātita-dhyāna, and savīrya-dhyāna''. In ''padāstha dhyāna,'' one focuses on a ''[[mantra]],''<ref name="HN4U"/> a combination of core letters or words on deity or themes. Jain followers practice mantra regularly by chanting loudly or silently in mind.<ref name="HN4U"/>

The meditation technique of [[contemplation]] includes ''agnya vichāya'', in which one contemplates on seven facts&nbsp;– life and non-life, the inflow, bondage, stoppage and removal of ''[[karma]]s'', and the final accomplishment of liberation. In ''apaya vichāya'', one contemplates on the incorrect insights one indulges, which eventually develops right insight. In ''vipaka vichāya'', one reflects on the eight causes or basic types of ''karma''. In ''sansathan vichāya'', one thinks about the vastness of the universe and the loneliness of the soul.<ref name="HN4U">{{Cite book |first1=Rudi |last1=Jansma |first2=Sneh Rani Jain |last2=Key |title=Introduction To Jainism |publisher=Prakrit Bharti Academy, Jaipur, India |year=2006 |chapter=Yoga and Meditation |chapter-url=http://www.herenow4u.net/index.php?id=66251 |access-date=2009-09-14 |archive-date=2019-12-13 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191213225205/http://www.herenow4u.net/index.php?id=66251 |url-status=live }}</ref>

====Buddhism====
[[File:BodhidharmaYoshitoshi1887.jpg|thumb|upright|[[Bodhidharma]] practicing [[zazen]]]]
{{Main|Buddhist meditation}}

[[Buddhism|Buddhists]] pursue meditation as part of the path toward [[Bodhi|awakening]] and [[nirvana]].{{refn|group=note|For instance, {{harvtxt|Kamalashila|2003|p=4}}, states that Buddhist meditation "includes any method of meditation that has [[Bodhi|Enlightenment]] as its ''ultimate'' aim." Likewise, {{harvtxt|Bodhi|1999}} writes: "To arrive at the experiential realization of the truths it is necessary to take up the practice of meditation.... At the climax of such contemplation the mental eye ... shifts its focus to the unconditioned state, [[Nirvana|Nibbana]]...." A similar although in some ways slightly broader definition is provided by:{{sfn|Fischer-Schreiber|Ehrhard|Diener|1991|p=142}} "'''Meditation'''&nbsp;– general term for a multitude of religious practices, often quite different in method, but all having the same goal: to bring the consciousness of the practitioner to a state in which he can come to an experience of 'awakening,' 'liberation,' 'enlightenment.'" {{harvtxt|Kamalashila|2003}} further allows that some Buddhist meditations are "of a more preparatory nature" (p. 4).}} The closest words for meditation in the classical languages of [[Buddhism]] are ''[[Bhavana|bhāvanā]]'' ("development"), and the core practices of body contemplations ([[Patikulamanasikara|repulsiveness]] and [[Maraṇasati|cemetery contemplations]]) and ''[[anapanasati]]'' ([[mindfulness]] of in-and-out breathing){{refn|group=note|The [[Pāli]] and [[Sanskrit]] word ''bhāvanā'' literally means "development" as in "mental development." For the association of this term with "meditation," see {{harvtxt|Epstein|1995|p=105}}; and {{harvtxt|Fischer-Schreiber|Ehrhard|Diener|1991|p=20}}. As an example from a well-known discourse of the [[Pali Canon]], in "The Greater Exhortation to Rahula" (''Maha-Rahulovada Sutta'', [[Majjhima Nikaya|MN]] 62), Ven. [[Sariputta]] tells Ven. [[Rahula]] (in Pali, based on [http://www.tipitaka.org/romn/cscd/s0202m.mul1.xml VRI, n.d.)]: ''{{IAST|ānāpānassatiṃ, rāhula, bhāvanaṃ bhāvehi.}}'' {{cite web |url=http://www.accesstoinsight.org/tipitaka/mn/mn.062.than.html |title=Maha-Rahulovada Sutta: The Greater Exhortation to Rahula (MN 62) |author=Ṭhānissaro Bhikkhu |author-link=Ṭhānissaro Bhikkhu |year=2006 |access-date=16 February 2011 |archive-date=1 February 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210201104736/http://www.accesstoinsight.org/tipitaka/mn/mn.062.than.html |url-status=live }} translates this as: "Rahula, develop the meditation [''{{IAST|bhāvana}}''] of [[anapanasati|mindfulness of in-&-out breathing]]." (Square-bracketed Pali word included based on Ṭhānissaro Bhikkhu, 2006, end note}} culminating in ''jhāna''/''[[Dhyāna in Buddhism|dhyāna]]'' or ''[[samādhi]]''.{{refn|group=note|See, for example, {{cite web |url=http://www.accesstoinsight.org/lib/authors/thanissaro/onetool.html |title=One Tool Among Many: The Place of Vipassana in Buddhist Practice |author=Ṭhānissaro Bhikkhu |author-link=Ṭhānissaro Bhikkhu |year=1997 |access-date=16 February 2011 |archive-date=12 April 2010 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100412055344/http://www.accesstoinsight.org/lib/authors/thanissaro/onetool.html |url-status=live }}; as well as {{harvtxt|Kapleau|1989|p=385}} for the derivation of the word "zen" from [[Sanskrit]] "dhyāna". [[Pāli Text Society]] Secretary Rupert Gethin, in describing the activities of [[śramaṇa|wandering ascetics]] contemporaneous with the Buddha, wrote:
: There is the cultivation of meditative and contemplative techniques aimed at producing what might, for the lack of a suitable technical term in English, be referred to as "altered states of consciousness". In the technical vocabulary of Indian religious texts such states come to be termed "meditations" ([Skt.:] ''dhyāna'' / [Pali:] ''jhāna'') or "concentrations" (''[[samādhi]]''); the attainment of such states of consciousness was generally regarded as bringing the practitioner to deeper knowledge and experience of the nature of the world. ({{harvnb|Gethin|1998|p=10}}) }}

While most classical and contemporary Buddhist meditation guides are school-specific,{{refn|group=note|Examples of contemporary school-specific classics include:
* from the Theravada tradition, {{harvtxt|Thera|1996}}.
* from the Zen tradition, {{harvtxt|Kapleau|1989}}.}} the root meditative practices of various body recollections and [[Anapanasati|breath meditation]] have been preserved and transmitted in almost all [[schools of Buddhism|Buddhist traditions]], through [[Buddhist texts]] like the ''[[Satipatthana Sutta]]'' and the [[Dhyana sutras]], and through oral teacher-student transmissions. These ancient practices are supplemented with various distinct interpretations of, and developments in, these practices.

The [[Theravāda]] tradition stresses the development of ''[[Samatha-vipassana|samatha]]'' and ''vipassana'', postulating over fifty methods for developing mindfulness based on the ''Satipatthana Sutta'',{{refn|group=note|{{harvtxt|Goldstein|2003}} writes that, in regard to the [[Satipatthana Sutta]], "there are more than fifty different practices outlined in this Sutta. The meditations that derive from these foundations of mindfulness are called ''vipassana''..., and in one form or another&nbsp;– and by whatever name&nbsp;– are found in all the major Buddhist traditions" (p. 92).}} and forty for developing concentration based on the [[Visuddhimagga]].

The [[Tibetan Buddhism|Tibetan tradition]] incorporated [[Sarvastivada]] and Tantric practices, wedded with [[Madhyamaka]] philosophy, and developed thousands of visualization meditations.{{refn|group=note|Regarding Tibetan visualizations, {{harvtxt|Kamalashila|2003}}, writes: "The Tara meditation ... is one example out of thousands of subjects for visualization meditation, each one arising out of some meditator's visionary experience of enlightened qualities, seen in the form of [[Buddhahood|Buddhas]] and [[Bodhisattva]]s" (p. 227).}}

{{anchor|No thought}}The [[Zen]] tradition incorporated mindfulness and breath-meditation via the Dhyana sutras, which are based on the Sarvastivada-tradition. Sitting meditation, known as [[zazen]], is a central part of Zen practice. Downplaying the "petty complexities" of satipatthana and the body-recollections{{sfn|Sharf|2015|p=475}}{{sfn|McRae|1986|p=116}} (but maintaining the awareness of immanent death), the early Chan-tradition developed the notions or practices of ''wu nian'' ("no thought, no fixation on thought, such as one's own views, experiences, and knowledge"){{sfn|Yu|2021|p=157}}{{sfn|Lai|Cheng|2008|p=351}} and ''fēi sīliàng'' (非思量, Japanese: ''hishiryō'', "nonthinking");{{sfn|Suzuki|2014|p=112}} and ''kanxin'' ("observing the mind"){{sfn|Schaik|2018|p=70, 93}} and ''shou-i pu i'' (守一不移, "maintaining the one without wavering,"{{sfn|McRae|1986|p=143}} turning the attention from the objects of experience, to the nature of mind, the perceiving subject itself, which is equated with [[Buddha-nature]].{{sfn|Sharf|2014|p=939}}

The [[Silk Road transmission of Buddhism]] introduced Buddhist meditation to other Asian countries, reaching China in the 2nd century CE,<ref>{{cite book |author=Heinrich Dumoulin |year=2005 |title=Zen Buddhism: A History. Vol. 1: India and China |page=64}}</ref> and Japan in the 6th century CE.<ref>{{cite book |title=Zen Buddhism: A History, Vol. 2: Japan |author=Heinrich Dumoulin |translator1=James W. Heisig |translator2=Paul F. Knitter |year=2005 |isbn=0-941532-90-9 |page=5|publisher=World Wisdom }}</ref> In the modern era, Buddhist meditation techniques have become popular in the wider world, due to the influence of [[Buddhist modernism]] on Asian Buddhism, and [[Buddhism in the West|western lay interest]] in [[Zen]] and the [[Vipassana movement]], with many non-Buddhists taking-up meditative practices. The modernized concept of mindfulness (based on the Buddhist term ''[[Sati (Buddhism)|sati]]'') and related meditative practices have in turn led to [[Mindfulness#Therapy programs|mindfulness based therapies]].<ref>{{Cite web|date=March 5, 2021|title=How to Use Guided Meditation for Calm and Mindfulness|url=https://www.unitedwecare.com/guided-meditation-for-calm-mindfulness/|website=United We Care|access-date=May 26, 2021|archive-date=May 26, 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210526194508/https://www.unitedwecare.com/guided-meditation-for-calm-mindfulness/|url-status=live}}</ref>

=====Dhyana=====
[[Dhyāna in Buddhism|Dhyana]], while often presented as a form of focused attention or concentration, as in Buddhagosa's Theravada classic the ''[[Visuddhimagga]]'' ("Path of purification", 5th c. CE), according to a number of contemporary scholars and scholar-practitioners, it is actually a description of the development of perfected equanimity and mindfulness, apparently induced by satipatthana, an open monitoring of the breath, without trying to regulate it. The same description, in a different formula, can be found in the [[bojjhanga]], the "seven factors of awakening," and may therefore refer to the core program of early Buddhist ''bhavana''.<ref>Gethin, ''The Buddhist Path to Awakening''</ref> According to Vetter, dhyana seems to be a natural development from the sense-restraint and moral constrictions prescribed by the Buddhist tradition.<ref>Vetter, ''The meditative practices of early Buddhism''</ref>{{sfn|Polak|2011}}

=====Samatha and vipassana=====
The Buddha identified two paramount mental qualities that arise from wholesome meditative practice or ''bhavana'', namely ''[[samatha]]'' ("calm," "serenity"  "tranquility") and ''[[vipassana]]'' (insight). As the developing tradition started to emphasize the value of liberating insight, and ''dhyana'' came to be understood as concentration,{{sfn|Bronkhorst|1993|p=131}}{{sfn|Vetter|1988|pp=xxi–xxxvii}} ''[[Samatha-vipassana|samatha]]'' and ''[[vipassana]]'' were understood as two distinct meditative techniques. In this understanding, ''[[Samatha-vipassana|samatha]]'' steadies, composes, unifies and concentrates the mind, while ''[[Samatha-vipassana|vipassana]]'' enables one to see, explore and discern "formations" (conditioned phenomena based on the five [[Skandha|aggregates]]).{{refn|group=note|These definitions of ''samatha'' and ''vipassana'' are based on the "Four Kinds of Persons Sutta" ([[Anguttara Nikaya|AN]] 4.94). This article's text is primarily based on {{harvtxt|Bodhi|2005|loc=pp. 269–70, 440 ''n''. 13}}. See also {{cite web |url=http://www.accesstoinsight.org/tipitaka/an/an04/an04.094.than.html |title=Samadhi Sutta: Concentration (Tranquillity and Insight) (AN 4.94) |author=Ṭhānissaro Bhikkhu |author-link=Ṭhānissaro Bhikkhu |year=1998d |access-date=16 February 2011 |archive-date=13 October 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181013172229/http://www.accesstoinsight.org/tipitaka/an/an04/an04.094.than.html |url-status=live }}.}}

According to this understanding, which is central to Theravada orthodoxy but also plays a role in [[Tibetan Buddhism]], through the meditative development of serenity, one is able to weaken the obscuring [[Five Hindrances|hindrances]] and bring the mind to a collected, pliant, and still state (''[[samadhi]]''). This quality of mind then supports the development of insight and wisdom ([[prajñā (Buddhism)|Prajñā]]) which is the quality of mind that can "clearly see" (''vi-passana'') the nature of phenomena. What exactly is to be seen varies within the Buddhist traditions. In Theravada, all phenomena are to be seen as [[anicca|impermanent]], [[dukkha|suffering]], [[anatta|not-self]] and [[shunyata|empty]]. When this happens, one develops [[Nonattachment (philosophy)|dispassion]] (''viraga'') for all phenomena, including all negative qualities and hindrances and lets them go. It is through the release of the hindrances and ending of craving through the meditative development of insight that one gains liberation.<ref>See, for instance, AN 2.30 in {{harvtxt|Bodhi|2005|pp=267–68}}, and {{cite web |url=http://www.accesstoinsight.org/tipitaka/an/an02/an02.030.than.html |title=Vijja-bhagiya Sutta: A Share in Clear Knowing (AN 2.30) |author=Ṭhānissaro Bhikkhu |author-link=Ṭhānissaro Bhikkhu |year=1998e |access-date=2011-02-16 |archive-date=2013-06-19 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130619063012/http://www.accesstoinsight.org/tipitaka/an/an02/an02.030.than.html |url-status=live }}</ref>

====Sikhism====
{{Main|Nām Japō}}

In [[Sikhism]], [[Simran (Sanskrit word)|''simran'']] (meditation) and good deeds are both necessary to achieve the devotee's spiritual goals;<ref>{{cite book |last=Sharma |first=Suresh |title=Cultural and Religious Heritage of India: Sikhism |year=2004 |publisher=Mittal Publications |isbn=978-81-7099-961-4 |page=7}}</ref> without good deeds meditation is futile. When [[Sikhs]] meditate, they aim to feel God's presence and emerge in the divine light.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Ranjan |first=Abhiruchi |date=2019 |title=Ravidassia Religiosity in the Modern Era: Perspectives in Theory and from the Field |journal=Sociological Bulletin |volume=68 |issue=3 |pages=274–289 |doi=10.1177/0038022919876403 |jstor=48564546 |issn=0038-0229}}</ref> It is only God's [[hukam|divine will]] or order that allows a devotee to desire to begin to meditate.<ref>{{cite book |last=Duggal |first=Kartar |title=The Prescribed Sikh Prayers (Nitnem) |year=1980 |publisher=Abhinav Publications |isbn=978-81-7017-377-9 |page=20}}</ref> [[Nām Japō|''Nām japnā'']] involves focusing one's attention on the names or great attributes of God.<ref>{{cite book |last=Singh |first=Nirbhai |title=Philosophy of Sikhism: Reality and Its Manifestations |url=https://archive.org/details/philosophyofsikh0000nirb |url-access=registration |year=1990 |publisher=Atlantic Publishers & Distribution |page=[https://archive.org/details/philosophyofsikh0000nirb/page/105 105]}}</ref>

=== Taoism ===
{{Main|Taoist meditation}}

[[File:性命圭旨 中心圖.png|thumb|Centering the Mind 中心圖, 1615 ''[[Xingming guizhi]]'']]
[[File:Stage1.gif|thumb|upright| "Gathering the Light", Taoist meditation from ''[[The Secret of the Golden Flower]]'']]
Taoist meditation has developed techniques including concentration, visualization, ''[[qi]]'' cultivation, [[contemplation]], and [[mindfulness]] meditations in its long history. Traditional Daoist meditative practices influenced Buddhism creating the unique meditative practices of [[Chinese Buddhism]]  that then spread through the rest of east Asia from around the 5th century.Traditional [[Traditional Chinese medicine|Chinese medicine]] and the [[Chinese martial arts]] were influenced and influences of Taoist meditation.{{citation needed|date=February 2023}}

[[Livia Kohn]] distinguishes three basic types of Taoist meditation: "concentrative", "insight", and "visualization".<ref>Kohn, Livia (2008), "Meditation and visualization," in ''The Encyclopedia of Taoism'', ed. by Fabrizio Pregadio, p. 118.</ref> ''Ding'' [[wikt:定|定]] (literally means "decide; settle; stabilize") refers to "deep concentration", "intent contemplation", or "perfect absorption". ''Guan'' [[wikt:觀|觀]] ({{lit|watch; observe; view}}) meditation seeks to merge and attain unity with the Dao. It was developed by [[Tang dynasty]] (618–907) Taoist masters based upon the ''[[Tiantai]]'' Buddhist practice of ''[[Vipassanā]]'' "insight" or "wisdom" meditation. ''Cun'' [[wikt:存|存]] ({{lit|exist; be present; survive}}) has a sense of "to cause to exist; to make present" in the meditation techniques popularized by the Taoist [[Shangqing School|Shangqing]] and [[Lingbao School]]s. A meditator visualizes or actualizes solar and lunar essences, lights, and deities within their body, which supposedly results in health and longevity, even ''[[Xian (Taoism)|xian]]'' 仙/仚/僊, "immortality".{{citation needed|date=February 2023}}

The ''[[Guanzi (text)|Guanzi]]'' essay (late 4th century BCE) ''[[Neiye]]'' "Inward training" is the oldest received writing on the subject of ''[[qi]]'' cultivation and breath-control meditation techniques.<ref name='Cambridge'>{{Cite book | last1=Harper | first1=Donald | first2=Michael | last2=Loewe | first3=Edward L. | last3=Shaughnessy | title=The Cambridge History of Ancient China: From the Origins of Civilization to 221 BC | publisher=Cambridge University Press | date=2007 | orig-date=First published in 1999 | location=Cambridge | page=880 | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=cHA7Ey0-pbEC&q=cambridge++history+of+ancient+china | isbn=978-0-521-47030-8 | access-date=2020-10-27 | archive-date=2023-03-17 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230317095145/https://books.google.com/books?id=cHA7Ey0-pbEC&q=cambridge++history+of+ancient+china | url-status=live }}</ref> For instance, "When you enlarge your mind and let go of it, when you relax your vital breath and expand it, when your body is calm and unmoving: And you can maintain the One and discard the myriad disturbances. ... This is called "revolving the vital breath": Your thoughts and deeds seem heavenly."<ref>Roth, Harold D. (1999), ''Original Tao: Inward Training (''Nei-yeh'') and the Foundations of Taoist Mysticism'', Columbia University Press, p. 92.</ref>

The Taoist ''[[Zhuangzi (book)|Zhuangzi]]'' (c. 3rd century BCE) records ''[[zuowang]]'' or "sitting forgetting" meditation. [[Confucius]] asked his disciple [[Yan Hui (disciple of Confucius)|Yan Hui]] to explain what "sit and forget" means: "I slough off my limbs and trunk, dim my intelligence, depart from my form, leave knowledge behind, and become identical with the Transformational Thoroughfare."<ref>Mair, Victor H., tr. (1994), ''Wandering on the Way: Early Taoist Tales and Parables of Chuang Tzu'', Bantam Books, p. 64.</ref>

Taoist meditation practices are central to [[Chinese martial arts]] (and some [[Japanese martial arts]]), especially the ''qi''-related ''[[neijia]]'' "internal martial arts". Some well-known examples are ''[[daoyin]]'' ("guiding and pulling"), [[qigong]] ("life-energy exercises"), ''[[neigong]]'' ("internal exercises"), ''[[neidan]]'' ("internal alchemy"), and [[tai chi]] ("great ultimate boxing"), which is thought of as moving meditation. One common explanation contrasts "movement in stillness" referring to energetic visualization of ''qi'' circulation in qigong and ''[[zuochan]]'' ("seated meditation"),{{sfn|Perez-De-Albeniz|Holmes|2000|p=}} versus "stillness in movement" referring to a state of meditative calm in [[tai chi]] forms. Also the unification or middle road forms such as ''Wuxingheqidao'' that seeks the unification of internal alchemical forms with more external forms.{{citation needed|date=July 2024}}`

===Abrahamic religions===

====Judaism====
{{Main|Jewish meditation}}

Judaism has made use of meditative practices for thousands of years.<ref name=Verman1 >''The history and varieties of Jewish meditation'' by Mark Verman 1997 {{ISBN|978-1-56821-522-8}} p. 1</ref><ref>{{cite book|last=Jacobs |first=L. |year=1976 |title=Jewish Mystical Testimonies |place=Jerusalem |publisher=Keter Publishing House Jerusalem}}</ref> For instance, in the [[Torah]], the patriarch [[Isaac]] is described as going ''"לשוח"'' (''lasuach'') in the field&nbsp;– a term understood by all commentators as some type of meditative practice ([[Book of Genesis|Genesis]] 24:63).{{sfn|Kaplan|1978|p=101}} Similarly, there are indications throughout the [[Tanakh]] (the Hebrew [[Bible]]) that the [[Old Testament prophets|prophets]] meditated.<ref name=Verman45 >''The history and varieties of Jewish meditation'' by Mark Verman 1997 {{ISBN|978-1-56821-522-8}} p. 45</ref> In the [[Old Testament]], there are two [[Hebrew language|Hebrew]] words for meditation: ''hāgâ'' ({{langx|he|הגה}}), ''to sigh'' or ''murmur'', but also ''to meditate'', and ''sîḥâ'' ({{langx|he|שיחה}}),  ''to muse'', or ''rehearse in one's mind''.<ref name="Kaplan, A. 1985">{{cite book |last=Kaplan |first=A. |year=1985 |title=Jewish Meditation: A Practical Guide |publisher=New York Schocken Books }}</ref>

Classical Jewish texts espouse a wide range of meditative practices, often associated with the cultivation of ''[[kavanah]]'' or intention. The first layer of [[Halakha|rabbinic law]], the [[Mishnah]], describes ancient sages "waiting" for an hour before their prayers, "in order to direct their hearts to the Omnipresent One" ([[Mishnah]] [[Berakhot (tractate)|Berakhot]] 5:1). Other early [[rabbinic texts]] include instructions for visualizing the Divine Presence (B. [[Talmud]] [[Sanhedrin (tractate)|Sanhedrin]] 22a) and breathing with conscious gratitude for every breath ([[Genesis Rabba]] 14:9).<ref>Buxbaum, Y. (1990) ''Jewish Spiritual Practices'', New York, Rowman and Littlefield, pp. 108-10, 423-35.</ref>

One of the best-known types of meditation in early Jewish mysticism was the work of the [[Merkabah]], from the root /R-K-B/ meaning "chariot" (of God).<ref name="Kaplan, A. 1985"/> Some meditative traditions have been encouraged in [[Kabbalah]], and some Jews have described Kabbalah as an inherently meditative field of study.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Scholem |first1=Gershom Gerhard |title=Major Trends in Jewish Mysticism |date=1961 |publisher=Schocken Books |isbn=978-0-8052-1042-2 |page=34 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=kD2y4wMOlAoC&pg=PA34 |access-date=2018-05-09 |archive-date=2023-03-17 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230317095145/https://books.google.com/books?id=kD2y4wMOlAoC&pg=PA34 |url-status=live }}</ref>{{sfn|Kaplan|1982}}<ref>Matt, D.C. (1996) ''The Essential Kabbalah: The Heart of Jewish Mysticism'', San Francisco, HarperCollins.</ref> Kabbalistic meditation often involves the mental visualization of the supernal realms. [[Aryeh Kaplan]] has argued that the ultimate purpose of Kabbalistic meditation is to understand and cleave to the Divine.<ref name="Kaplan, A. 1985"/>

Meditation has been of interest to a wide variety of modern Jews. In modern Jewish practice, one of the best known meditative practices is called ''"[[hitbodedut]]"'' (''התבודדות'', alternatively transliterated as "hisbodedus"), and is explained in [[Kabbalah|Kabbalistic]], [[Hasidic]], and [[Mussar Movement|Mussar]] writings, especially the Hasidic method of Rabbi [[Nachman of Breslav]]. The word derives from the Hebrew word "boded" (בודד), meaning the state of being alone.{{sfn|Kaplan|1978|loc=op cit p. 2}} Another Hasidic system is the [[Habad]] method of "hisbonenus", related to the [[Sephirah]] of "Binah", Hebrew for understanding.{{sfn|Kaplan|1982|loc=op cit, p. 13}} This practice is the analytical reflective process of making oneself understand a mystical concept well, that follows and internalises its study in Hasidic writings. The [[Musar Movement]], founded by Rabbi Israel Salanter in the middle of the nineteenth-century, emphasized meditative practices of [[introspection]] and [[Mental image|visualization]] that could help to improve moral character.<ref>Claussen, Geoffrey. [https://www.academia.edu/1502958/The_Practice_of_Musar "The Practice of Musar"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130902005723/http://www.academia.edu/1502958/The_Practice_of_Musar |date=2013-09-02 }}. Conservative Judaism 63, no. 2 (2012): 3–26. Retrieved 10 June 2014</ref> Conservative rabbi [[Alan Lew]] has emphasized meditation playing an important role in the process of [[Teshuvah|''teshuvah'' (repentance)]].<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.pbs.org/wnet/religionandethics/2006/09/15/september-15-2006-rabbi-alan-lew/3733/|title=Rabbi Alan Lew|date=2006-09-15|website=Religion & Ethics NewsWeekly, PBS|language=en-US|access-date=2019-08-09|archive-date=2019-07-28|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190728150811/https://www.pbs.org/wnet/religionandethics/2006/09/15/september-15-2006-rabbi-alan-lew/3733/|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=_2BA8b7eUEUC|title=Be Still and Get Going: A Jewish Meditation Practice for Real Life|last=Lew|first=Alan|date=2007-07-31|publisher=Little, Brown|isbn=978-0-316-02591-1|language=en|access-date=2019-08-09|archive-date=2023-03-17|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230317095151/https://books.google.com/books?id=_2BA8b7eUEUC|url-status=live}}</ref> [[Jewish Buddhist]]s have adopted Buddhist styles of meditation.<ref>{{cite news |last1=Michaelson |first1=Jay |title=Judaism, Meditation and The B-Word |url=https://forward.com/culture/3652/judaism-meditation-and-the-b-word/ |work=The Forward |date=10 June 2005 |access-date=9 May 2018 |archive-date=10 May 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180510115414/https://forward.com/culture/3652/judaism-meditation-and-the-b-word/ |url-status=live }}</ref>

====Christianity====
[[File:Padre Pio.jpg|thumb|upright|Saint [[Pio of Pietrelcina]] stated: "Through the study of books one seeks God; by meditation one finds Him."<ref>''The Rosary: A Path Into Prayer'' by Liz Kelly 2004 {{ISBN|0-8294-2024-X}} pp. 79, 86</ref>]]
{{Main|Christian meditation}}

[[Christian meditation]] is a term for a form of prayer in which a structured attempt is made to get in touch with and deliberately reflect upon the revelations of [[God]].<ref>''Christian Meditation for Beginners'' by Thomas Zanzig, Marilyn Kielbasa 2000, {{ISBN|0-88489-361-8}} p. 7</ref> In the [[Roman Empire]], by 20 BCE [[Philo of Alexandria]] had written on some form of "spiritual exercises" involving attention (prosoche) and concentration<ref>Hadot, Pierre; Arnold I. Davidson (1995) ''Philosophy as a way of life'' {{ISBN|0-631-18033-8}} pp. 83–84</ref> and by the 3rd century [[Plotinus]] had developed meditative techniques. The word meditation comes from the Latin word ''meditatum'', which means to "concentrate" or "to ponder". Monk [[Guigo II]] introduced this terminology for the first time in the 12th century AD. Christian meditation is the process of deliberately focusing on specific thoughts (e.g. a [[biblical]] scene involving [[Jesus]] and the [[Virgin Mary]]) and reflecting on their meaning in the context of the love of God.<ref>'' An introduction to Christian spirituality'' by F. Antonisamy, 2000 {{ISBN|81-7109-429-5}} pp. 76–77</ref> Christian meditation is sometimes taken to mean the middle level in a broad three-stage characterization of prayer: it then involves more reflection than first level vocal [[prayer]], but is more structured than the multiple layers of [[contemplation]] in Christianity.<ref>''Simple Ways to Pray'' by Emilie Griffin 2005 {{ISBN|0-7425-5084-2}} p. 134</ref>

Between the 10th and 14th centuries, [[hesychasm]] was developed, particularly on [[Mount Athos]] in Greece, and involves the repetition of the [[Jesus prayer]].<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20101021081733/http://www.macedonian-heritage.gr/Athos/General/AthosHistory.html Archived] from [http://www.macedonian-heritage.gr/Athos/General/AthosHistory.html the original] {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100729005209/http://www.macedonian-heritage.gr/Athos/General/AthosHistory.html |date=29 July 2010 }} on 11 February 2014.</ref> Interactions with Indians or the [[Sufis]] may have influenced the [[Eastern Christian]] meditation approach to hesychasm, but this is unproven.<ref>''An introduction to the Christian Orthodox churches'' by John Binns 2002 {{ISBN|0-521-66738-0}} p. 128</ref>

[[Western Christian]] meditation contrasts with most other approaches in that it does not involve the repetition of any phrase or action and requires no specific posture. Western Christian meditation progressed from the 6th century practice of Bible reading among [[Order of Saint Benedict|Benedictine]] monks called [[Lectio Divina]], i.e. divine reading. Its four formal steps as a "ladder" were defined by the monk [[Guigo II]] in the 12th century with the Latin terms ''lectio'', ''meditatio'', ''oratio'', and ''contemplatio'' (i.e. read, ponder, pray, contemplate). Western Christian meditation was further developed by saints such as [[Ignatius of Loyola]] and [[Teresa of Avila]] in the 16th century.<ref>''Christian Spirituality: A Historical Sketch'' by George Lane 2005 {{ISBN|0-8294-2081-9}} p. 20</ref><ref>''Christian spirituality: themes from the tradition'' by Lawrence S. Cunningham, Keith J. Egan 1996 {{ISBN|0-8091-3660-0}} p. 38</ref><ref>''The Oblate Life'' by Gervase Holdaway, 2008 {{ISBN|0-8146-3176-2}} p. 109</ref><ref>''After Augustine: the meditative reader and the text'' by [[Brian Stock (historian)|Brian Stock]] 2001 {{ISBN|0-8122-3602-5}} p. 105</ref>

On 28 April 2021, [[Pope Francis]], in an address to the General Audience, said that meditation is a need for everyone.<ref name=":4">{{Cite news |date=2021-04-28 |title=Pope at Audience: Meditating is a way of encountering Jesus - Vatican News |url=https://www.vaticannews.va/en/pope/news/2021-04/pope-francis-general-audience-meditation-prayer.html |access-date=2022-12-20 |website=www.vaticannews.va |language=en |archive-date=2022-12-19 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221219161435/https://www.vaticannews.va/en/pope/news/2021-04/pope-francis-general-audience-meditation-prayer.html |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=kathleenaleteia |date=2021-04-28 |title=Meditation is more than a self-help trend, explains Pope |url=https://aleteia.org/2021/04/28/meditation-is-more-than-a-self-help-trend-explains-pope/ |access-date=2022-12-20 |website=Aleteia — Catholic Spirituality, Lifestyle, World News, and Culture |language=en |archive-date=2022-12-19 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221219161435/https://aleteia.org/2021/04/28/meditation-is-more-than-a-self-help-trend-explains-pope/ |url-status=live }}</ref> He noted that the term "meditation" has had many meanings throughout history, and that "the ancients used to say that the organ of prayer is the heart."<ref name=":4" />

In Catholic Christianity, the [[Rosary]] is a devotion for the meditation of the mysteries of Jesus and Mary.<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.fatima.org/it/essentials/whatucando/potetefare.asp |title=Home |access-date=2017-06-19 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170601223011/http://www.fatima.org/it/essentials/whatucando/potetefare.asp |archive-date=2017-06-01 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.theholyrosary.org/|title=The Holy Rosary|website=www.theholyrosary.org|access-date=2017-06-18|archive-date=2020-01-22|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200122090242/http://www.theholyrosary.org/|url-status=live}}</ref> "The gentle repetition of its prayers makes it an excellent means to moving into deeper meditation. It gives us an opportunity to open ourselves to God's word, to refine our interior gaze by turning our minds to the life of Christ. The first principle is that meditation is learned through practice. Many people who practice rosary meditation begin very simply and gradually develop a more sophisticated meditation. The meditator learns to hear an interior voice, the voice of God.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.loyolapress.com/our-catholic-faith/prayer/personal-prayer-life/different-ways-to-pray/the-rosary-as-a-tool-for-meditation-by-liz-kelly|title=The Rosary as a Tool for Meditation by Liz Kelly|website=www.loyolapress.com|access-date=2017-06-18|archive-date=2017-07-06|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170706182921/http://www.loyolapress.com/our-catholic-faith/prayer/personal-prayer-life/different-ways-to-pray/the-rosary-as-a-tool-for-meditation-by-liz-kelly|url-status=live}}</ref> Similarly, the [[chotki]] of the [[Eastern Orthodox]] denomination, the [[Wreath of Christ]] of the [[Lutheran]] faith, and the [[Anglican prayer beads]] of the [[Anglican|Episcopalian]] tradition are used for Christian prayer and meditation.<ref name="Dhiman2020">{{cite book |last1=Dhiman |first1=Satinder K. |title=The Routledge Companion to Mindfulness at Work |date=8 September 2020 |publisher=[[Routledge]] |isbn=978-0-429-53486-7 |language=English}}</ref><ref name="Winston2008">{{cite book |last1=Winston |first1=Kimberly |title=Bead One, Pray Too |date=1 March 2008 |publisher=[[Church Publishing]] |isbn=978-0-8192-2092-9 |language=English}}</ref>

According to [[Edmund P. Clowney]], Christian meditation contrasts with Eastern forms of meditation as radically as the portrayal of [[God the Father]] in the Bible contrasts with depictions of [[Krishna]] or [[Brahman]] in Indian teachings.<ref>''Christian Meditation'' by Edmund P. Clowney, 1979 {{ISBN|1-57383-227-8}} p. 12</ref> Unlike some Eastern styles, most styles of Christian meditation do not rely on the repeated use of [[mantra]]s, and yet are also intended to stimulate thought and deepen meaning. Christian meditation aims to heighten the personal relationship based on the love of God that marks Christian communion.<ref>''Christian Meditation'' by Edmund P. Clowney, 1979 {{ISBN|1-57383-227-8}} pp. 12–13</ref><ref>''The encyclopedia of Christianity, Volume 3'' by Erwin Fahlbusch, Geoffrey William Bromiley 2003 {{ISBN|90-04-12654-6}} p. 488</ref> In ''[[Aspects of Christian meditation]]'', the [[Catholic Church]] warned of potential incompatibilities in mixing Christian and Eastern styles of meditation.<ref>[http://www.ewtn.com/library/curia/cdfmed.htm EWTN: Congregation for the Doctrine of the Faith] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100502022624/http://www.ewtn.com/library/curia/cdfmed.htm |date=2010-05-02 }} ''Letter on certain aspects of Christian meditation'' (in English), 15 October 1989]</ref> In 2003, in ''[[A Christian reflection on the New Age]]'' the [[Holy See|Vatican]] announced that the "Church avoids any concept that is close to those of the [[New Age]]".<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://articles.latimes.com/2003/feb/08/local/me-relignewage8/2 |title=Los Angeles Times, February 8, 2003, ''New Age Beliefs Aren't Christian, Vatican Finds'' |website=[[Los Angeles Times]] |access-date=1 July 2010 |archive-url=https://archive.today/20120701141606/http://articles.latimes.com/2003/feb/08/local/me-relignewage8/2 |archive-date=1 July 2012 }}</ref><ref>{{cite news|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/europe/2722743.stm|title=Vatican sounds New Age alert|date=4 February 2003|via=news.bbc.co.uk|access-date=1 July 2010|archive-date=25 October 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191025115902/http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/europe/2722743.stm|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.vatican.va/roman_curia/pontifical_councils/interelg/documents/rc_pc_interelg_doc_20030203_press-conf-new-age_en.html|title=Prersentation of Holy See's Document on New Age|website=www.vatican.va|access-date=2020-03-15|archive-date=2007-08-09|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070809113335/https://www.vatican.va/roman_curia/pontifical_councils/interelg/documents/rc_pc_interelg_doc_20030203_press-conf-new-age_en.html|url-status=live}}</ref>

====Islam====
[[File:Whirling dervishes, Rumi Fest 2007.jpg|thumb|Whirling dervishes]]
{{Main|Muraqabah}}
{{See also|Sufism|Sama (Sufism)|Dhikr#Sufi view}}

''[[Dhikr]]'' (''zikr'') is a type of meditation within Islam, meaning remembering and mentioning God, which involves the repetition of the 99 Names of God since the 8th or 9th century.<ref name="Prayer page 147-149">''Prayer: a history'' by Philip Zaleski, Carol Zaleski 2005 {{ISBN|0-618-15288-1}} pp. 147–49</ref><ref name="Education' page 63">''Global Encyclopaedia of Education'' by Rama Sankar Yadav & B.N. Mandal 2007 {{ISBN|978-81-8220-227-6}} p. 63</ref> It is interpreted in different meditative techniques in Sufism or Islamic mysticism.<ref name="Prayer page 147-149"/><ref name="Education' page 63"/> This became one of the essential elements of Sufism as it was systematized traditionally. It is juxtaposed with ''fikr'' (thinking) which leads to knowledge.<ref>''Sainthood and revelatory discourse'' by David Emmanuel Singh 2003 {{ISBN|81-7214-728-7}} p. 154</ref> By the 12th century, the practice of Sufism included specific meditative techniques, and its followers practiced breathing controls and the repetition of holy words.<ref name="Spiritual Psychology' page 109">''Spiritual Psychology'' by Akbar Husain 2006 {{ISBN|81-8220-095-4}} p. 109</ref>

Sufism uses a meditative procedure like Buddhist [[samadhi (Buddhism)|concentration]], involving high-intensity and sharply focused introspection. In the Oveyssi-Shahmaghsoudi Sufi order, for example, ''[[muraqabah]]'' takes the form of ''tamarkoz'', "concentration" in [[Persian language|Persian]].<ref>{{cite journal |doi=10.1177/0533316489224010 |title=Book Reviews |journal=Group Analysis |volume=22 |issue=4 |page=434 |year=2016 |last1=Dwivedi |first1=Kedar Nath |s2cid=220434155 }}</ref>

''Tafakkur'' or ''tadabbur'' in Sufism literally means ''reflection upon the [[universe]]'': this is considered to permit access to a form of [[cognitive]] and [[emotion]]al development that can emanate only from the higher level, i.e. from God. The sensation of receiving divine inspiration awakens and liberates both heart and intellect, permitting such inner growth that the apparently mundane actually takes on the quality of the [[infinity|infinite]]. Muslim teachings embrace life as a test of one's submission to God.<ref>{{Cite book | last=Khalifa | first=Rashad | title=Quran: The Final Testament | publisher=Universal Unity | year=2001 | page=536 | isbn=978-1-881893-05-9 }}</ref>
	
[[Dervish]]es of certain Sufi orders practice [[Sufi whirling|whirling]], a form of physically active meditation.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Holmes |first1=David S. |title=Meditation and Somatic Arousal Reduction |journal=American Psychologist |date=January 1984 |volume=39 |issue=1 |pages=1–10 |doi=10.1037/0003-066X.39.1.1 |pmid=6142668 |url=http://www.appstate.edu/~bromanfulksj/Holmes%20-%20Meditation%20and%20Somatic%20Arousal%20Reduction.pdf |access-date=2 July 2020 |archive-date=22 September 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200922081339/http://www.appstate.edu/~bromanfulksj/Holmes%20-%20Meditation%20and%20Somatic%20Arousal%20Reduction.pdf |url-status=live }}</ref>

====Baháʼí Faith====
In the teachings of the [[Baháʼí Faith]], which derives from an Islamic context but is universalist in orientation, meditation is a primary tool for spiritual development,<ref name="bahai-meditation">{{cite web | title=Meditation | access-date=2020-12-16 | url=https://www.bahai.org/beliefs/life-spirit/devotion/meditation | publisher=Baháʼí International Community | year=2015 | archive-date=2020-11-12 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201112033221/https://www.bahai.org/beliefs/life-spirit/devotion/meditation | url-status=live }}</ref> involving reflection on the words of God.<ref name="Smith-meditation">{{cite encyclopedia |last=Smith |first=Peter |encyclopedia=A concise encyclopedia of the Baháʼí Faith |title=Meditation |year=2000 |publisher=Oneworld Publications |location=Oxford |isbn=978-1-85168-184-6 |pages=[https://archive.org/details/conciseencyclope0000smit/page/243 243–44] |url=https://archive.org/details/conciseencyclope0000smit/page/243 }}</ref> While prayer and meditation are linked, where meditation happens generally in a prayerful attitude, prayer is seen specifically as turning toward God,<ref name="Smith-prayer">{{cite encyclopedia |last=Smith |first=Peter |encyclopedia=A concise encyclopedia of the Bahá'í Faith |title=Prayer |year=2000 |publisher=Oneworld Publications |location=Oxford |isbn=978-1-85168-184-6 |page=[https://archive.org/details/conciseencyclope0000smit/page/274 274] |url=https://archive.org/details/conciseencyclope0000smit/page/274 }}</ref> and meditation is seen as a communion with one's self where one focuses on the divine.<ref name="Smith-meditation"/>

In [[Baháʼí teachings]] the purpose of meditation is to strengthen one's understanding of the words of God, and to make one's soul more susceptible to their potentially transformative power,<ref name="Smith-meditation"/> more receptive to the need for both prayer and meditation to bring about and maintain a spiritual communion with God.<ref>Hatcher, William S. (1982). ''[https://bahai-library.com/hatcher_bw18_spirituality The Concept of Spirituality] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210415020445/https://bahai-library.com/hatcher_bw18_spirituality |date=2021-04-15 }}''. Bahá'í Studies, volume 11. Association for Bahá'í Studies. Ottawa.</ref>

[[Bahá'u'lláh]], the founder of the religion, never specified any particular form of meditation, and thus each person is free to choose their own form.<ref name="bahai-meditation" /> However, he did state that Baháʼís should read a passage of the [[Baháʼí literature|Baháʼí writings]] twice a day, once in the morning, and once in the evening, and meditate on it. He also encouraged people to reflect on one's actions and worth at the end of each day.<ref name="Smith-meditation"/> During the [[Nineteen Day Fast]], a period of the year during which Baháʼís adhere to a sunrise-to-sunset fast, they meditate and pray to reinvigorate their spiritual forces.<ref name="directives">{{Cite book |first=Shoghi |last=Effendi |author-link=Shoghi Effendi |year=1973 |title=Directives from The Guardian |publisher=Hawaii Baháʼí Publishing Trust |url=http://reference.bahai.org/en/t/se/DG/dg-71.html#pg28 |page=28 |access-date=2011-07-01 |archive-date=2008-07-06 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080706191445/http://reference.bahai.org/en/t/se/DG/dg-71.html#pg28 |url-status=live }}</ref>

===Modern spirituality===
[[File:Jawlensky Meditation 1290065.jpg|thumb|upright|''Meditation''. [[Alexej von Jawlensky]], 1918]]

====Modern dissemination in the West====
Meditation has spread in the West since the late 19th century, accompanying increased travel and communication among cultures worldwide. Most prominent has been the transmission of Asian-derived practices to the West. In addition, interest in some Western-based meditative practices has been revived,<ref name=reininger98>{{Cite book |title=Centering prayer in daily life and ministry |editor=Gustave Reininger |year=1997 |publisher=Continuum |location=New York |isbn=978-0-8264-1041-2 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=xEhaEDm7jsIC&pg=PT1 |access-date=2020-05-07 |archive-date=2023-03-17 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230317095158/https://books.google.com/books?id=xEhaEDm7jsIC&pg=PT1 |url-status=live }}</ref> and these have been disseminated to a limited extent to Asian countries.<ref name=contempout>The organization [http://www.contemplativeoutreach.org/site/PageServer?pagename=community_chapters_international Contemplative Outreach] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111103193809/http://www.contemplativeoutreach.org/site/PageServer?pagename=community_chapters_international |date=2011-11-03 }}, which teaches Christian [[Centering Prayer]], has chapters in non-Western locations in Malaysia, Singapore, and South Korea (accessed 5 July 2010)</ref>

Ideas about Eastern meditation had begun "seeping into American popular culture even before the American Revolution through the various sects of European occult Christianity",{{sfn|Taylor|1999|p=3}} and such ideas "came pouring in [to America] during the era of the transcendentalists, especially between the 1840s and the 1880s."{{sfn|Taylor|1999|p=3}} The following decades saw further spread of these ideas to America:
{{blockquote|The [[World Parliament of Religions]], held in Chicago in 1893, was the landmark event that increased Western awareness of meditation. This was the first time that Western audiences on American soil received Asian spiritual teachings from Asians themselves. Thereafter, [[Swami Vivekananda]] [...] [founded] various [[Vedanta]] ashrams [...] [[Anagarika Dharmapala]] lectured at Harvard on Theravada Buddhist meditation in 1904; [[Abdul Baha]] [...] [toured] the US teaching the principles of [[Baháʼí Faith|Bahai]] {{sic}}, and [[Soyen Shaku]] toured in 1907 teaching Zen.{{sfn|Taylor|1999|p=4}}}}

[[File:Meditating in Madison Square Park.jpg|thumb|right|Meditating in [[Madison Square Park]], [[New York City]]]]

More recently, in the 1960s, another surge in Western interest in meditative practices began. The rise of communist political power in Asia led to many Asian spiritual teachers taking refuge in Western countries, oftentimes as refugees.{{sfn|Taylor|1999|p=7}} In addition to spiritual forms of meditation, secular forms of meditation have taken root. Rather than focusing on spiritual growth, secular meditation emphasizes stress reduction, relaxation and self-improvement.{{sfn|Everly|Lating|2002|p=200}}<ref>''Encyclopedia of Psychology and Religion'' by David A. Leeming, Kathryn Madden, Stanton Marlan 2009 ISBN page 559</ref>

The 2012 US National Health Interview Survey of 34,525 subjects found that 8% of US adults used meditation,<ref>{{cite web |url=https://nccih.nih.gov/research/statistics/NHIS/2012/mind-body/meditation |title=8.0% of U.S. adults (18 million) used Meditation |website=NCCIH |date=2014-11-11 |access-date=2018-01-14 |archive-date=2018-01-14 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180114191159/https://nccih.nih.gov/research/statistics/NHIS/2012/mind-body/meditation |url-status=live }}</ref> with lifetime and 12-month prevalence of meditation use of 5.2% and 4.1% respectively.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Cramer |first1=Holger |last2=Hall |first2=Helen |last3=Leach |first3=Matthew |last4=Frawley |first4=Jane |last5=Zhang |first5=Yan |last6=Leung |first6=Brenda |last7=Adams |first7=Jon |last8=Lauche |first8=Romy |year=2016 |title=Prevalence, patterns, and predictors of meditation use among US adults: A nationally representative survey |journal=Scientific Reports |volume=6 |page=36760 |bibcode=2016NatSR...636760C |doi=10.1038/srep36760 |pmid=27829670 |pmc=5103185}}</ref> Meditation use among workers was 10% (up from 8% in 2002).<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Kachan |first1=Diana |last2=Olano |first2=Henry |last3=Tannenbaum |first3=Stacey L. |last4=Annane |first4=Debra W. |last5=Mehta |first5=Ashwin |last6=Arheart |first6=Kristopher L. |last7=Fleming |first7=Lora E. |last8=Yang |first8=Xuan |last9=McClure |first9=Laura A. |first10=David J. |last10=Lee |date=5 January 2017 |title=Prevalence of Mindfulness Practices in the US Workforce: National Health Interview Survey |journal=Preventing Chronic Disease |volume=14 |page=E01 |doi=10.5888/pcd14.160034 |pmid=28055821 |pmc=5217767}}</ref>

Mantra meditation, with the use of a ''japa mala'' and especially with focus on the [[Hare Krishna maha-mantra]], is a central practice of the [[Gaudiya Vaishnava]] faith tradition and the [[International Society for Krishna Consciousness]], also known as the Hare Krishna movement. Other popular [[New Religious Movements]] include the [[Ramakrishna Mission]], [[Vedanta Society]], [[Divine Light Mission]], [[Chinmaya Mission]], [[Rajneesh|Osho]], [[Sahaja Yoga]], [[Transcendental Meditation]], [[Kalki Bhagavan|Oneness University]], [[Brahma Kumaris]], [[Vihangam Yoga]] and [[Heartfulness Meditation|Heartfulness Meditation (Sahaj Marg)]].{{Citation needed|date=February 2024}}

====New Age====
{{Esotericism}}

[[New Age]] meditations are often influenced by Eastern philosophy, [[mysticism]], [[yoga]], [[Hinduism]] and [[Buddhism]], yet may contain some degree of Western influence. In the West, meditation found its mainstream roots through the [[counterculture of the 1960s|social revolution of the 1960s and 1970s]], when many of the [[baby boomers|youth of the day]] rebelled against traditional religion as a reaction against what some perceived as the failure of Christianity to provide spiritual and ethical guidance.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,899555-1,00.html|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070503045854/http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,899555-1,00.html|archive-date=3 May 2007|title=''Time Magazine'', "Youth: The Hippies" Jul. 7, 1967}}</ref> New Age meditation as practised by the early hippies is regarded for its techniques of blanking out the mind and releasing oneself from conscious thinking. This is often aided by repetitive chanting of a mantra, or focusing on an object.<ref>{{Cite book | first=George | last=Barnia | title=The Index of Leading Spiritual Indicators | publisher=Word Publishing | location=Dallas, Texas | year=1996 | url=http://www.religioustolerance.org/newage.htm | access-date=2008-10-15 | archive-date=2011-01-04 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110104203727/http://www.religioustolerance.org/newage.htm | url-status=live }}</ref> New Age meditation evolved into a range of purposes and practices, from serenity and balance to access to other realms of consciousness to the concentration of energy in group meditation to the supreme goal of ''samadhi'', as in the ancient yogic practice of meditation.<ref>{{Cite book | first=John | last=Lash | title=The Seeker's Handbook: The Complete Guide to Spiritual Pathfinding | publisher=Harmony Books | location=New York | year=1990 | page=320 | isbn=978-0-517-57797-4}}</ref>

====Guided meditation====
{{further|Yoga nidra}}

Guided meditation is a form of meditation which uses a number of different techniques to achieve or enhance the meditative state. It may simply be meditation done under the guidance of a trained practitioner or teacher, or it may be through the use of imagery, music, and other techniques.<ref>Complementary, Alternative, or Integrative Health: What's In a Name? US Department of Health and Human Services. Public Health Service. National Institutes of Health. NIH Publication No. D347. Retrieved 31 July 2015.</ref> The session can be either in person, via media<ref>'''Sources''':
*Stein, T. R., Olivo, E. L., Grand, S. H., Namerow, P. B., Costa, J., and Oz, M. C., A pilot study to assess the effects of a guided imagery audiotape intervention on psychological outcomes in patients undergoing coronary artery bypass graft surgery. Holistic Nursing Practice, Vol. 24, No. 4, 2010, pp213-222.
*Morris, C., The use of self-service technologies in stress management: A pilot project. Master of Social Work Clinical Research Papers. Saint Catherine University, St. Paul, MN, 2012.
*Carter, E., Pre-packaged guided imagery for stress reduction: Initial results. Counseling, Psychotherapy, and Health, Vol. 2, No. 2, 2006, pp27-39.</ref> comprising music or verbal instruction, or a combination of both.<ref>Rose J. P. and Weis, J., Sound meditation in oncological rehabilitation: a pilot study of a receptive music therapy group using the monochord. Forschende Komplementarmedizin, Vol. 15, No. 6, 2006, pp335-343.</ref><ref>Grocke, D., and Wigram, T., Receptive methods in music therapy: Techniques and clinical applications for music therapy clinicians, educators, and students. London, England: Jessica Kingsley, 2007.</ref> The most common form is a combination of [[meditation music]] and [[Music therapy|receptive music therapy]], [[guided imagery]], relaxation, mindfulness, and [[Writing therapy|journaling]].<ref name="Astin, J.A. 2003, pp131">Astin, J.A., Shapiro, S.L., Eisenberg, D. M., and Forys, M.A., Mind-body medicine: State of the science, implications for practice. Journal of the American Board of Family Medicine, Vol. 16:, 2003, pp131–147.</ref><ref>Newham, P., Guided Meditation: Principles and Practice. London; Tigers Eye, 2005.</ref><ref>Newham, P., Music, and Meditation: The Therapeutics of Sound. London: Tigers Eye: 2014.</ref>

Because of the different combinations used under the one term, it can be difficult to attribute positive or negative outcomes to any of the various techniques. Furthermore, the term is frequently used interchangeably with "guided imagery" and sometimes with "creative visualization" in [[popular psychology]] and [[self-help]] literature. It is less commonly used in [[Scholarly method|scholarly]] and [[Scientific method|scientific]] publications. Consequently, guided meditation cannot be understood as a single technique but rather multiple techniques that are integral to its practice.<ref name="Astin, J.A. 2003, pp131"/><ref>Post-White J. 2002. Clinical indication for use of imagery in oncology practice. In Voice Massage, Scripts for Guided Imagery, Edwards D.M (Ed.). Oncology Nursing Society: Pittsburgh, PA.</ref><ref>Wallace KG. 1997. Analysis of recent literature concerning relaxation and imagery interventions for cancer pain. Cancer Nursing 20: 79–87.</ref><ref>Luebert K, Dahme B, Hasenbring M. 2001. The effectiveness of relaxation training in reducing treatment-related symptoms and improving emotional adjustment in acute non-surgical cancer treatment: A meta-analytical review. Psycho-Oncology, Vol. 10: pp490–502.</ref>

Guided meditation as an aggregate or synthesis of techniques includes [[meditation music]], [[Music therapy|receptive music therapy]], [[guided imagery]], [[Relaxation technique|relaxation]], meditative praxis, and self-reflective [[Writing therapy|journaling]], all of which have been shown to have [[Therapy|therapeutic]] benefits when employed as an adjunct to primary strategies.{{citation needed|date=February 2024}} Benefits include lower levels of [[Stress (psychological)|stress]],<ref>'''Sources''':
*Unger, C. A., Busse, D., & Yim, I. S., The effect of guided relaxation on cortisol and affect: Stress reactivity as a moderator. Journal of Health Psychology, 2015, 1359105315595118.
*Weigensberg M.J., Lane C.J., Winners O., Wright T., Nguyen-Rodriguez S., Goran M.I., Spruijt-Metz, D. Acute effects of stress-reduction Interactive Guided Imagery (SM) on salivary cortisol in overweight Latino adolescents. Journal of Alternative and Complementary Medicine, Vol. 15, No. 3, 2003, pp297-303.
*Varvogli, L., and Darviri, C., Stress Management Techniques: evidence-based procedures that reduce stress and promote health. Health Science Journal, Vol. 5, No. 2, 2011 pp74-89.
*Carter, E., Pre-packaged guided imagery for stress reduction: Initial results. Counseling, Psychotherapy, and Health, Vol. 2, No. 2, 2006, pp27-39.
*Wynd C. A., Relaxation imagery used for stress reduction in the prevention of smoking relapse. Journal of Advanced Nursing, Vol. 17, No. 3, 2006, pp294-302.
*Lin, M. F., Hsu, M. C., Chang, H. J., Hsu, Y. Y., Chou, M. H., and Crawford, P., Pivotal moments and changes in the Bonny Method of Guided Imagery and Music for patients with depression. Journal of Clinical Nursing, Vol. 19, Nos. 7‐8, 2010, pp1139-1148.
*Roffe, L., Schmidt, K., and Ernst, E., A systematic review of guided imagery as an adjuvant cancer therapy. Psycho-oncology, Vol. 14, No. 8, 2005, pp607-617.
*Holden-Lund C., Effects of relaxation with guided imagery on surgical stress and wound healing. Research in Nursing and Health, Vol. 11, No. 4, 2007, pp235-244.
*Stein, T. R., Olivo, E. L., Grand, S. H., Namerow, P. B., Costa, J., and Oz, M. C., A pilot study to assess the effects of a guided imagery audiotape intervention on psychological outcomes in patients undergoing coronary artery bypass graft surgery. Holistic Nursing Practice, Vol. 24, No. 4, 2010, pp213-222.
*Sahler O.J., Hunter, B.C., Liesveld J.L., The effect of using music therapy with relaxation imagery in the management of patients undergoing bone marrow transplantation: a pilot feasibility study. Alternative Therapies, Vol. 9, No. 6, 2003, pp70- 74.
*Kent, D., "Zenventures: Unwind your Imagination with Guided Meditation". Masters Thesis. Buffalo State University, New York, 2014.</ref> reducing [[Asthma |asthmatic episodes]],<ref>Epstein G.N., Halper J.P., Barrett E.A., Birdsall, C., McGee, M., Baron K.P., Lowenstein S., A pilot study of mind-body changes in adults with asthma who practice mental imagery. alternative therapies. Volume 10, July/August 2004, pp66-71.</ref> physical [[Pain management|pain]],<ref>'''Sources''':
*Menzies V., Taylor A.G., Bourguignon C., Effects of guided imagery on outcomes of pain, functional status, and self-efficacy in persons diagnosed with fibromyalgia. Journal of Alternative and Complementary Medicine, Vol. 12, No. 1, 2006, pp23-30.
*Kwekkeboom, K. L., Kneip, J., and Pearson, L., A pilot study to predict success with guided imagery for cancer pain. Pain Management Nursing, Vol. 4, No. 3, 2003, pp112-123.
*Antall G.F., Kresevic D. The use of guided imagery to manage pain in an elderly orthopedic population. Orthopaedic Nursing, Vol. 23, No. 5, September/October 2004, pp335-340</ref> [[insomnia]],<ref>'''Sources''':
* Ong, J. C., Manber, R., Segal, Z., Xia, Y., Shapiro, S., and Wyatt, J. K., A randomized controlled trial of mindfulness meditation for chronic insomnia. Sleep, Vol. 37, No. 9, 2014, p1553.
* Singh, A., and Modi, R., Meditation and positive mental health. Indian Journal of Positive Psychology, Vol. 3, No. 3, 2012, p273.
* Molen, Y., Santos, G., Carvalho, L., Prado, L., and Prado, G., Pre-sleep worry decreases by adding reading and guided imagery to insomnia treatment. Sleep Medicine, Vol. 14, 2013, e210-e211.</ref> episodic anger,<ref>Awalt, R. M., Reilly, P. M., and Shopshire, M. S., The angry patient: an intervention for managing anger in substance abuse treatment. Journal of psychoactive drugs, Vol. 29, No. 4, 1997, 353-358.</ref> [[Cognitive distortion|negative or irrational thinking]],<ref>'''Sources''':
* Lang, T. J., Blackwell, S. E., Harmer, C., Davison, P., & Holmes, E. A., Cognitive bias modification using mental imagery for depression: Developing a novel computerized intervention to change negative thinking styles. European Journal of Personality, Vol. 26, 2012, pp145–157.
* Teasdale, J. D., Emotion and two kinds of meaning: Cognitive therapy and applied cognitive science. Behaviour Research and Therapy, Vol. 31, No. 4, 1993, pp339-354.
* Birnbaum, L., & Birnbaum, A., In search of inner wisdom: guided mindfulness meditation in the context of suicide. The Scientific World Journal, Vol. 4, 2004, pp216-227.</ref> and [[anxiety]], as well as improving [[Coping (psychology)|coping skills]],<ref>'''Sources''':
*Manyande, A., Berg, S., Gettins, D., Stanford, S. C., Mazhero, S., Marks, D. F., and Salmon, P., Preoperative rehearsal of active coping imagery influences subjective and hormonal responses to abdominal surgery. Psychosomatic Medicine, Vol. 57, No. 2, 1995, pp177-182.
*Hockenberry, M. H., Guided imagery as a coping measure for children with cancer. Journal of Pediatric Oncology Nursing, Vol. 6, No. 2, 1989, pp29-29.</ref> focus,<ref>'''Sources''':
*Esplen, M. J. and Hodnett, E., A Pilot Study Investigating Student Musicians' Experiences of Guided Imagery as a Technique to Manage Performance Anxiety. Medical Problems of Performing Artists, Vol. 14, No. 3, 1999, pp127-132.
*Feltz, D. L., and Riessinger, C. A., Effects of in vivo emotive imagery and performance feedback on self-efficacy and muscular endurance. Journal of Sport and Exercise Psychology, Vol. 12, No. 2, 1990, pp132-143.
*Sanders, C. W., Sadoski, M., Bramson, R., Wiprud, R., and Van Walsum, K., Comparing the effects of physical practice and mental imagery rehearsal on learning basic surgical skills by medical students. American journal of obstetrics and gynecology, Vol. 191, No. 5, 2004, pp1811-1814.</ref> and a general feeling of [[well-being]].<ref>Hanh, Thich Nhat. The blooming of a lotus: Guided meditation for achieving the miracle of mindfulness. Beacon Press, 2009.</ref><ref>LeónPizarro C., Gich I., Barthe E., Rovirosa A., Farrús B., Casas F., Verger E., Biete A., Craven Bartle J., Sierra J., Arcusa A., A randomized trial of the effect of training in relaxation and guided imagery techniques in improving psychological and quality-of-life indices for gynecologic and breast brachytherapy patients. Psycho-oncology, Vol. 16, No. 11, 2007, pp971-979.</ref>