Editing Madagascar (section)

==Demographics==
{{Main|Demographics of Madagascar|List of cities in Madagascar}}

[[File:Map of various tribes in Madagascar.jpg|thumb|Major malagasy tribes by locality]]

Agriculture has long influenced settlement on the island. Almost 60% of the nation's population live in rural areas.<ref>{{Citation |title=Madagascar |date=2024-08-07 |work=The World Factbook |url=https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/madagascar/#people-and-society |access-date=2024-09-08 |publisher=Central Intelligence Agency |language=en}}</ref>

In 2024, the population of Madagascar was estimated at 32 million, up from 2.2 million in 1900.<ref name=":5">{{Cite web |last=Division |first=United Nations Population |title=By Location {{!}} Pivot Table {{!}} Data Portal |url=https://population.un.org/dataportal/data/indicators/49/locations/450/start/2019/end/2026/table/pivotbylocation?df=e023316d-87af-4918-8ee3-fe083aa8d4b1 |access-date=2024-09-08 |website=Population Division Data Portal |language=en}}</ref><ref name="LOC" /> The annual population growth rate in Madagascar was approximately 2.4% in 2024.<ref name=":5" />

Approximately 39.3 percent of the population is younger than 15 years of age, while 57.3 percent are between the ages of 15 and 64. Those aged 65 and older form 3.4 percent of the total population.<ref name=":5" /> Only two general censuses, in 1975 and 1993, have been carried out after independence. The most densely populated regions of the island are the eastern highlands and the eastern coast, contrasting most dramatically with the sparsely populated western plains.<ref name="LOC" />

===Ethnic groups===
{{Main|Ethnic groups of Madagascar}}
[[File:Antanosy Girl Fort Dauphin.jpg|thumb|Little [[Antanosy]] girl with dark blond hair]] 
The [[Malagasy people|Malagasy]] ethnic group forms over 90&nbsp;percent of Madagascar's population and is typically divided into 18 ethnic subgroups.<ref name=BGNote/> Recent DNA research revealed that the genetic makeup of the average Malagasy person constitutes an approximately equal blend of [[Southeast Asia]]n, [[Oceania]]n and East African genes,<ref>{{cite journal |vauthors=Hurles ME, Sykes BC, Jobling MA, Forster P |year=2005 |title=The dual origin of the Malagasy in Island Southeast Asia and East Africa: evidence from maternal and paternal lineages |url=http://www.sanger.ac.uk/about/press/2005/050504.html |url-status=dead |journal=American Journal of Human Genetics |volume=76 |issue=5 |pages=894–901 |doi=10.1086/430051 |pmc=1199379 |pmid=15793703 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110303210750/http://www.sanger.ac.uk/about/press/2005/050504.html |archive-date=3 March 2011 |access-date=30 April 2011}}</ref><ref name="Tofanelli">{{cite journal |vauthors = Tofanelli S, Bertoncini S, Castrì L, Luiselli D, Calafell F, Donati G, Paoli G |year = 2009 |title = On the origins and admixture of Malagasy: new evidence from high-resolution analyses of paternal and maternal lineages |journal = Molecular Biology and Evolution |volume = 26 |issue = 9|pages = 2109–2124 |doi=10.1093/molbev/msp120 |pmid = 19535740|doi-access = free }}</ref><ref name="Cox">{{cite journal|last1=Cox|first1=Murray P.|last2=Nelson|first2=Michael G.|last3=Tumonggor|first3=Meryanne K.|last4=Ricaut|first4=François-X.|last5=Sudoyo|first5=Herawati|date=2012|title=A small cohort of Island Southeast Asian women founded Madagascar|journal=Proceedings of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences|volume=279|issue=1739|pages=2761–2768|doi=10.1098/rspb.2012.0012 |doi-access=free|pmc=3367776|pmid=22438500}}</ref> although the genetics of some communities show a predominance of Southeast Asian or East African origins or some Arab, [[Indians in Madagascar|Indian]], or European ancestry.<ref name=Adelaar>Adelaar (2006), pp. 205–235</ref>

Southeast Asian features – specifically from the southern part of [[Borneo]] – are most predominant among the [[Merina people|Merina]] of the central highlands,<ref name=ethnicstrife/> who form the largest Malagasy ethnic subgroup at approximately 26&nbsp;percent of the population, while certain communities among the western coastal peoples (collectively called ''côtiers'') have relatively stronger East African features. The largest coastal ethnic subgroups are the [[Betsimisaraka people|Betsimisaraka]] (14.9&nbsp;percent) and the [[Tsimihety]] and [[Sakalava]] (6&nbsp;percent each).<ref name="LOC"/> Peoples along the east and southeastern coasts often have a roughly equal blend of Austronesian and Bantu ancestry; coastal peoples also usually show the largest genetic influence from the centuries of Arab, Somali, Gujarati, and Tamil traders and merchants of the area, compared to the inland highlander peoples.

{|class="wikitable" style="margin: 1em auto 1em auto;"
|-
!Malagasy ethnic subgroups !!Regional concentration
|-
|[[Antankarana]], [[Sakalava people|Sakalava]], [[Tsimihety people|Tsimihety]] ||Former [[Antsiranana Province]]; north and northwestern coasts
|-
|[[Sakalava people|Sakalava]], [[Vezo people|Vezo]] ||Former [[Mahajanga Province]]; western coast
|-
|[[Betsimisaraka people|Betsimisaraka]], [[Sihanaka]], [[Bezanozano]] ||Former [[Toamasina Province]]; eastern coast
|-
|[[Merina people|Merina]] ||Former [[Antananarivo Province]]; central highlands
|-
|[[Betsileo people|Betsileo]], [[Antaifasy]], [[Antambahoaka]], [[Antemoro people|Antaimoro]], [[Antaisaka people|Antaisaka]], [[Tanala]] ||Former [[Fianarantsoa Province]]; southeastern coast
|-
|[[Mahafaly]], [[Antandroy]], [[Antanosy people]], [[Bara people|Bara]], [[Vezo]] ||Former [[Toliara Province]]; southern inland regions and coast
|}

[[Chinese people in Madagascar|Chinese]], [[Indians in Madagascar|Indian]] and [[Comoros|Comoran]] minorities are present in Madagascar, as well as a small European (primarily [[French people|French]]) populace. Emigration in the late 20th century has reduced these minority populations, occasionally in abrupt waves, such as the exodus of Comorans in 1976, following anti-Comoran riots in Mahajanga.<ref name="LOC"/> By comparison, there has been no significant emigration of Malagasy peoples.<ref name=EBLand/> The number of [[French people in Madagascar|Europeans]] has declined since independence, reduced from 68,430 in 1958<ref name="Kitchen 1962, p. 256"/> to 17,000 three decades later. There were an estimated 25,000&nbsp;Comorans, 18,000&nbsp;Indians, and 9,000&nbsp;Chinese living in Madagascar in the mid-1980s.<ref name="LOC"/>

=== Largest cities ===
{{Largest cities of Madagascar}}

===Languages===
[[File:Madagascar Kids 5 (4814978342).jpg|thumb|A Malagasy child]]
{{Main|Malagasy language|Languages of Madagascar}}
The [[Malagasy language]] is of [[Malayo-Polynesian]] origin and is generally spoken throughout the island. The numerous dialects of Malagasy, which are generally mutually intelligible,<ref>Rajaonarimanana (2001), p. 8</ref> can be clustered under one of two subgroups: eastern Malagasy, spoken along the eastern forests and highlands including the Merina dialect of Antananarivo, and western Malagasy, spoken across the western coastal plains. The [[Malagasy language]] derives from the Southeast [[Barito languages]], with the [[Ma'anyan language]] being its closest relative, incorporating numerous [[Malay language|Malay]] and [[Javanese language|Javanese]] loanwords.<ref>Otto Chr. Dahl, ''Malgache et Maanjan: une comparaison linguistique'', Egede-Instituttet Avhandlinger, no. 3 (Oslo: Egede-Instituttet, 1951), p. 13.</ref><ref>There are also some Sulawesi loanwords, which Adelaar attributes to contact prior to the migration to Madagascar: See K. Alexander Adelaar, "The Indonesian Migrations to Madagascar: Making Sense of the Multidisciplinary Evidence", in Truman Simanjuntak, Ingrid Harriet Eileen Pojoh and Muhammad Hisyam (eds.), ''Austronesian Diaspora and the Ethnogeneses of People in Indonesian Archipelago'', (Jakarta: Indonesian Institute of Sciences, 2006), pp. 8–9.</ref>

[[French language|French]] became the official language during the colonial period, when Madagascar came under the authority of France. In the first national Constitution of 1958, Malagasy and French were named the official languages of the Malagasy Republic. Madagascar is a [[francophone]] country, and French is mostly spoken as a second language among the educated population and used for international communication.<ref name="LOC"/>

Among the upper class in large cities, French is spoken as a native language.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Øyvind |first=Dahl |date=June 19, 2024 |title=Linguistic policy challenges in Madagascar |url=https://core.ac.uk/download/pdf/225930576.pdf }}</ref>

No official languages were mentioned in the Constitution of 1992, although Malagasy was identified as the national language. Nonetheless, many sources still claimed that Malagasy and French were official languages, eventually leading a citizen to initiate a legal case against the state in April 2000, on the grounds that the publication of official documents only in the French language was unconstitutional. The High Constitutional Court observed in its decision that, in the absence of a language law, French still had the character of an official language.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.saflii.org/mg/cases/MGHCC/2000/1.html |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20110727232647/http://www.saflii.org/mg/cases/MGHCC/2000/1.html |archive-date = 27 July 2011 |url-status=live |title=Haute Cour Constitutionnelle De Madagascar, Décision n°03-HCC/D2 Du 12 avril 2000 |publisher=Saflii.org |date=12 April 2000 |access-date=25 April 2010 |language=fr}}</ref>

The Constitution of 2007 recognised three official languages, Malagasy, French, and English.<ref>{{cite web |title = Madagascar: 2007 Constitutional referendum |publisher = Electoral Institute for the Sustainability of Democracy in Africa |date = June 2010 |url = http://www.eisa.org.za/WEP/mad2007results.htm |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20080828215517/http://www.eisa.org.za/WEP/mad2007results.htm |archive-date = 28 August 2008 |url-status=dead |access-date =22 January 2012}}</ref> A fourth Constitution, adopted in 2010 following [[Malagasy constitutional referendum, 2010|a referendum]],<ref name=4thRepublic/> recognised only Malagasy and French.

=== Religion ===
{{Main|Religion in Madagascar}}
[[File:Antsirabe_-_église.JPG|thumb|right|[[Our Lady of La Salette Cathedral, Antsirabe|Our Lady of La Salette Cathedral]] in [[Antsirabe]]]]
[[File:130415-Eglise de Faravohitra.jpg|thumb|right|Faravohitra [[Catholic Church|Catholic]] Church in [[Antananarivo]]]]
[[Christianity]] is the most widely professed religion in Madagascar. According to the most recent national census completed in 1993, a majority of the population (52 percent) adhered to indigenous beliefs, with Christianity being the largest single religion at 41 percent, followed by [[Islam]] at 7 percent. However, according to the [[Pew Research Center]] in 2020, 85% of the population identified as [[Christianity in Madagascar|Christian]], while just 4.5% exclusively practiced folk religions; [[Protestantism|Protestants]] comprise a plurality of Christians, followed by [[Roman Catholicism in Madagascar|Roman Catholics]].<ref name="pew">{{cite web|url=http://www.globalreligiousfutures.org/countries/madagascar#/?affiliations_religion_id=0&affiliations_year=2020&region_name=All%20Countries&restrictions_year=2015 |title=Religions in Madagascar &#124; PEW-GRF |publisher=Globalreligiousfutures.org |access-date=20 September 2017 |archive-date=9 November 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191109064122/http://globalreligiousfutures.org/countries/madagascar#/?affiliations_religion_id=0&affiliations_year=2010&region_name=All%20Countries&restrictions_year=2015 |url-status=live}}</ref> In contrast, a 2020 study conducted by the [[Association of Religion Data Archives]] found 58.1% of the population was [[Christian]], 2.1% [[Muslim]], 39.2% practiced traditional faiths, and 0.6% was [[Irreligious|nonreligious]] or adhered to other faiths.<ref name="National Profiles">{{cite web | url=https://www.thearda.com/world-religion/national-profiles?u=137c | title=National Profiles | access-date=29 September 2022 | archive-date=27 December 2022 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221227190017/https://www.thearda.com/world-religion/national-profiles?u=137c | url-status=live }}</ref><ref name="BGNote" />

The inconsistency in religious data reflects the common practice of alternating between religious identities or [[Syncretism|syncretizing]] different faith traditions. Christians integrate and combine their religious beliefs with the deeply rooted practice of honoring ancestors. For instance, they may bless their dead at church before proceeding with traditional burial rites or invite a [[minister (Christianity)|Christian minister]] to consecrate a ''famadihana'' reburial.<ref name="famadihana" /> Christianity is predominant in the highlands.<ref>{{cite web |title=Madagascar |url=https://www.state.gov/reports/2020-report-on-international-religious-freedom/madagascar/ |access-date=2022-10-15 |website=United States Department of State |language=en-US |archive-date=29 September 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220929132734/https://www.state.gov/reports/2020-report-on-international-religious-freedom/madagascar/ |url-status=live }}</ref> The Malagasy Council of Churches comprises the four oldest and most prominent Christian denominations of Madagascar (Roman Catholic, [[Church of Jesus Christ in Madagascar]], [[Malagasy Lutheran Church|Lutheran]], and [[Church of the Province of the Indian Ocean|Anglican]]) and has been influential in Malagasy politics.<ref name="USSD">{{cite web |author=((Bureau of Democracy, Human Rights, and Labor)) |year=2006 |title=International Religious Freedom Report: Madagascar |url=https://2001-2009.state.gov/g/drl/rls/irf/2006/71310.htm |url-status=live |archive-url=http://webarchive.loc.gov/all/20120123150701/http%3A//www%2Estate%2Egov/g/drl/rls/irf/2006/71310%2Ehtm |archive-date=23 January 2012 |access-date=22 January 2012 |publisher=U.S. Department of State}}</ref>

The [[Veneration of the dead|veneration of ancestors]] has led to the widespread tradition of tomb building, as well as the highlands practice of the ''[[famadihana]]'', whereby a deceased family member's remains are exhumed and re-wrapped in fresh silk shrouds, before being replaced in the tomb. The ''famadihana'' is an occasion to celebrate the beloved ancestor's memory, reunite with family and community, and enjoy a festive atmosphere. Residents of surrounding villages are often invited to attend the party, where food and rum are typically served, and a ''[[hiragasy]]'' troupe or other musical entertainment is commonly present.<ref name=famadihana>{{cite news |last = Bearak |first = Barry |title = Dead Join the Living in a Family Celebration |newspaper = New York Times |page = A7 |date = 5 September 2010 |url = https://www.nytimes.com/2010/09/06/world/africa/06madagascar.html|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20120127041227/http://www.nytimes.com/2010/09/06/world/africa/06madagascar.html |archive-date = 27 January 2012 |url-status=live |access-date =13 January 2012}}</ref> Consideration for ancestors is also demonstrated through adherence to ''[[Fady (taboo)|fady]]'', taboos that are respected during and after the lifetime of the person who establishes them. It is widely believed that by showing respect for ancestors in these ways, they may intervene on behalf of the living. Conversely, misfortunes are often attributed to ancestors whose memory or wishes have been neglected. The sacrifice of [[zebu]] is a traditional method used to appease or honor the ancestors. In addition, the Malagasy traditionally believe in a creator god, called [[Zanahary]] or Andriamanitra.<ref name=Bradtbeliefs>Bradt (2011), pp.&nbsp;13–20</ref>

Islam was first brought to Madagascar in the Middle Ages by [[Arab people|Arab]] and [[Somali people|Somali]] Muslim traders, who established several Islamic schools along the eastern coast. While the use of Arabic script and loan words, and the adoption of Islamic astrology, would spread across the island, Islam took hold in only a handful of southeastern coastal communities. In 2020, [[Islam in Madagascar|Muslims]] constituted 2% of the population of Madagascar.<ref name="National Profiles"/><ref name="BGNote" /> They are largely concentrated in the northwestern provinces of [[Mahajanga]] and [[Antsiranana]]. Muslims are divided between ethnic Malagasy and Indians, Pakistanis and Comorans.

[[Hinduism]] was introduced to Madagascar through [[Gujarati people]] immigrating from the [[Saurashtra (region)|Saurashtra]] region of [[India]] in the late 19th century. Most Hindus in Madagascar speak [[Gujarati language|Gujarati]] or [[Hindi]] at home, reflecting the faiths concentration among those of Indian ancestry.<ref name="id">{{cite web |title = Report of the High Level Committee on the Indian Diaspora |publisher = Ministry of External Affairs, India |year = 2004 |url = http://indiandiaspora.nic.in/diasporapdf/chapter8.pdf |access-date = 22 January 2012 |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20030629092115/http://indiandiaspora.nic.in/diasporapdf/chapter8.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-date = 29 June 2003 }}</ref>

[[Rabbinic Judaism]] emerged on the island in the 21st century, as the common belief in a myth of Jewish origin for the Malagasy peoples inspired [[Messianic Judaism|Messianic Jews]] in Antananarivo to begin researching Judaism and studying the [[Torah]]. In 2016, 121 members of the [[Jews in Madagascar|Malagasy Jewish community]] were formally converted to Orthodox Judaism.<ref>{{Citation |title=FACES OF AFRICA: The Jews of Madagascar | date=27 February 2017 |url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=-9ra7mq7wBM |access-date=2024-01-13 |language=en |archive-date=13 January 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240113014116/https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=-9ra7mq7wBM |url-status=live }}</ref>

===Health===
{{main|Healthcare in Madagascar}}
Medical centers, dispensaries, and hospitals are found throughout the island, although they are concentrated in urban areas and particularly in Antananarivo. Access to medical care remains beyond the reach of many Malagasy, especially in the rural areas, and many recourse to traditional healers.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Legrip-Randriambelo|first1=Olivia|last2=Regnier|first2=Denis|title=The place of healers-diviners (ombiasa) in Betsileo medical pluralism|journal=Health, Culture and Society|volume=7|issue=1|pages=28–37|url=http://hcs.pitt.edu/ojs/index.php/hcs/article/viewFile/188/219|doi=10.5195/hcs.2014.188|year=2014|doi-access=free|access-date=21 July 2016|archive-date=29 August 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160829070004/http://hcs.pitt.edu/ojs/index.php/hcs/article/viewFile/188/219|url-status=live}}</ref> In addition to the high expense of medical care relative to the average Malagasy income, the prevalence of trained medical professionals remains extremely low. In 2010, Madagascar had an average of three hospital beds per 10,000 people and a total of 3,150 doctors, 5,661 nurses, 385 community health workers, 175 pharmacists, and 57 dentists for a population of 22&nbsp;million. Fifteen percent of government spending in 2008 was directed toward the health sector. Approximately 70 percent of spending on health was contributed by the government, while 30 percent originated with international donors and other private sources.<ref name=WHO2011/> The government provides at least one basic health center per commune. Private health centers are concentrated within urban areas and particularly those of the central highlands.<ref name=INSTAT/>

Despite these barriers to access, health services have shown a trend toward improvement over the past twenty years. Child immunizations against such diseases as [[hepatitis B]], [[diphtheria]], and [[measles]] increased an average of 60 percent in this period, indicating low but increasing availability of basic medical services and treatments. The Malagasy fertility rate in 2009 was 4.6 children per woman, declining from 6.3 in 1990. Teen pregnancy rates of 14.8 percent in 2011, much higher than the African average, are a contributing factor to rapid population growth.<ref name=WHO2011>{{cite book | title = World Health Statistics 2011 | publisher = World Health Organization | year = 2011 | location = Paris | url = http://www.unfpa.org/sowmy/resources/docs/main_report/en_SOWMR_Full.pdf | isbn = 978-92-4-156419-9 | access-date =21 January 2012| archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20111125020623/http://www.who.int/whosis/whostat/EN_WHS2011_Full.pdf | url-status=live | archive-date = 25 November 2011 }}</ref> In 2010, the maternal mortality rate was 440 per 100,000 births, compared to 373.1 in 2008 and 484.4 in 1990, indicating a decline in perinatal care following the 2009 coup. The infant mortality rate in 2011 was 41 per 1,000 births,<ref name=BGNote/> with an under-five mortality rate at 61 per 1,000 births.<ref name="SOWMY">{{cite web|url=http://www.unfpa.org/sowmy/report/home.html|title=The State of the World's Midwifery|publisher=United Nations Population Fund|date= August 2011 |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20111225024306/http://www.unfpa.org/sowmy/report/home.html |access-date =22 January 2012 |url-status=live|archive-date = 25 December 2011 }}</ref> [[Schistosomiasis]], [[malaria]], and sexually transmitted diseases are common in Madagascar, although infection rates of [[HIV/AIDS|AIDS]] remain low relative to many countries in mainland Africa, at 0.2 percent of the adult population. The malaria mortality rate is also among the lowest in Africa at 8.5 deaths per 100,000 people, in part because of the highest frequency use of insecticide treated nets in Africa.<ref name=WHO2011/> Adult life expectancy in 2009 was 63 years for men and 67 years for women.<ref name=WHO2011/>

Madagascar had [[21st century Madagascar plague outbreaks|outbreaks]] of the [[bubonic plague]] and [[pneumonic plague]] in 2017 (2575 cases, 221 deaths) and 2014 (263 confirmed cases, 71 deaths).<ref>{{Cite news |url=https://www.theguardian.com/global-development/2017/oct/19/madagascar-plague-death-toll-reaches-74 |title='It is a dangerous moment': Madagascar plague death toll reaches 74 |first=Peter |last=Beaumont |work=The Guardian |date=19 October 2017 |access-date=21 October 2017 |language=en-GB |archive-date=19 May 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200519165330/https://www.theguardian.com/global-development/2017/oct/19/madagascar-plague-death-toll-reaches-74 |url-status=live }}</ref> In 2019, Madagascar had a [[2018 Madagascar measles outbreak|measles outbreak]], resulting in 118,000 cases and 1,688 deaths. In 2020, Madagascar was also affected by the [[COVID-19 pandemic in Madagascar|COVID-19 pandemic]]. Undernourishment and hunger rates were at 42% in 2018.<ref>{{cite report |date=February 2021 |title=WFP Madagascar Country Brief |url=https://docs.wfp.org/api/documents/WFP-0000125015/download/?_ga=2.216094418.577338328.1616525997-700118633.1616525997 |publisher=World Food Programme |access-date=23 March 2021 |archive-date=30 March 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210330034436/https://docs.wfp.org/api/documents/WFP-0000125015/download/?_ga=2.216094418.577338328.1616525997-700118633.1616525997 |url-status=live }}</ref> According to the United Nations, more than one million people in southern Madagascar are struggling to get enough to eat,<ref>{{cite web|date=2021-10-21|title=Madagascar: Severe drought could spur world's first climate change famine|url=https://news.un.org/en/story/2021/10/1103712|access-date=2022-02-09|website=UN News|language=en|archive-date=8 February 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220208102451/https://news.un.org/en/story/2021/10/1103712|url-status=live}}</ref> due to what could become the first [[2021–2022 Madagascar famine|famine]] caused by climate change.<ref>{{cite news |title=How climate change is turning once green Madagascar into a desert |url=https://www.euronews.com/green/2022/03/20/how-climate-change-is-turning-once-green-madagascar-into-a-desert |work=Euronews |date=20 March 2022 |access-date=23 October 2022 |archive-date=23 October 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221023215848/https://www.euronews.com/green/2022/03/20/how-climate-change-is-turning-once-green-madagascar-into-a-desert |url-status=live }}</ref>

===Education===
{{Main|Education in Madagascar}}
[[File:Diego Suarez Antsiranana urban public primary school (EPP) Madagascar.jpg|thumb|right|alt=Students working in groups in classroom as teacher observes|[[Education in Madagascar|Education]] access and quality were prioritized under [[Marc Ravalomanana|Ravalomanana]].]]
Prior to the 19th century, all education in Madagascar was informal and typically served to teach practical skills as well as social and cultural values, including respect for ancestors and elders.<ref name="LOC"/> The first formal European-style school was established in 1818 at [[Toamasina]] by members of the [[London Missionary Society]] (LMS). The LMS was invited by King Radama I to expand its schools throughout Imerina to teach basic literacy and numeracy to aristocratic children. The schools were closed by Ranavalona I in 1835,<ref name="Ralibera">Ralibera (1993), p. 196</ref> but reopened and expanded in the decades after her death.

By the end of the 19th century, Madagascar had the most developed and modern school system in pre-colonial Sub-Saharan Africa. Access to schooling was expanded in coastal areas during the colonial period, with French language and basic work skills becoming the focus of the curriculum. During the post-colonial First Republic, a continued reliance on French nationals as teachers, and French as the language of instruction, displeased those desiring a complete separation from the former colonial power.<ref name="LOC"/> Consequently, under the socialist Second Republic, French instructors and other nationals were expelled, Malagasy was declared the language of instruction, and a large cadre of young Malagasy were rapidly trained to teach at remote rural schools under the mandatory two-year national service policy.<ref>{{cite web |last = Ranaivoson |first = Samuel|title = La formation du personnel enseignant de l'éducation de base à Madagascar: Une etude de cas. Quelques reflections intéressant la programmation de l'assistance de l'UNICEF |location = Paris |website = UNESCO |url = http://unesdoc.unesco.org/images/0004/000404/040436Fb.pdf |access-date =10 July 2011 |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20120604233852/http://unesdoc.unesco.org/images/0004/000404/040436Fb.pdf |archive-date = 4 June 2012 |url-status=live |year = 1980|language=fr}}</ref>

This policy, known as ''malgachization'', coincided with a severe economic downturn and a dramatic decline in the quality of education. Those schooled during this period generally failed to master the French language or many other subjects and struggled to find employment, forcing many to take low-paying jobs in the informal or black market that mired them in deepening poverty. Excepting the brief presidency of Albert Zafy, from 1992 to 1996, Ratsiraka remained in power from 1975 to 2001 and failed to achieve significant improvements in education throughout his tenure.<ref>{{cite journal |last = Mukonoweshuro |first = E.G. |title = State "resilience" and chronic political instability in Madagascar |journal = Canadian Journal of African Studies |volume = 24 |issue = 3 |pages = 376–398 |year = 1990 |doi = 10.2307/485627|jstor = 485627}}</ref>

Education was prioritized under the Ravalomanana administration (2002–09), and is currently free and compulsory from ages 6 to 13.<ref name=WBeducation>{{cite journal |first1 = Gerard |last1 = Lassibille |first2 = Jee-Peng |last2 = Tan |first3 = Cornelia |last3 = Jesse |first4 = Trang Van |last4 = Nguyen |title = Managing for results in primary education in Madagascar: Evaluating the impact of selected workflow interventions |journal = The World Bank Economic Review |volume = 24 |issue = 2 |pages = 303–329 |date = 6 August 2010 |url = http://www.povertyactionlab.org/publication/managing-results-primary-education-madagascar-evaluating-impact-selected-workflow-interventions |doi = 10.1093/wber/lhq009 |access-date =10 February 2012 |archive-url = https://www.webcitation.org/65MknBr6d?url=http://www.povertyactionlab.org/publication/managing-results-primary-education-madagascar-evaluating-impact-selected-workflow-interventions |url-status=dead |archive-date = 11 February 2012|hdl = 10986/4523 |hdl-access = free }}</ref> The primary schooling cycle is five years, followed by four years at the lower secondary level and three years at the upper secondary level.<ref name="LOC"/> During Ravalomanana's first term, thousands of new primary schools and additional classrooms were constructed, older buildings were renovated, and tens of thousands of new primary teachers were recruited and trained. Primary school fees were eliminated, and kits containing basic school supplies were distributed to primary students.<ref name=WBeducation/>

Government school construction initiatives have ensured at least one primary school per ''fokontany'' and one lower secondary school within each commune. At least one upper secondary school is located in each of the larger urban centers.<ref name=INSTAT/> The three branches of the national public university are located at Antananarivo, Mahajanga, and Fianarantsoa. These are complemented by public teacher-training colleges and several private universities and technical colleges.<ref name="LOC"/>

As a result of increased educational access, enrollment rates more than doubled between 1996 and 2006. However, education quality is weak, producing high rates of grade repetition and dropout.<ref name=WBeducation/> Education policy in Ravalomanana's second term focused on quality issues, including an increase in minimum education standards for the recruitment of primary teachers from a middle school leaving certificate (BEPC) to a high school leaving certificate (BAC), and a reformed teacher training program to support the transition from traditional didactic instruction to student-centered teaching methods to boost student learning and participation in the classroom.<ref>{{cite book |last = Ministère de l'Education Secondaire et l'Education de Base |title = Curriculum de formation des élèves-maîtres |publisher = Government Printing Office |location = Antananarivo, Madagascar |year = 2005 |language=fr}}</ref> Public expenditure on education was 2.8&nbsp;percent of GDP in 2014. The literacy rate is estimated at 64.7%.<ref name=cia/>