Editing Macedonia (ancient kingdom) (section)

==Society and culture==
{{Main|Ancient Macedonians}}
{{further|Culture of ancient Greece}}
{{multiple image| align = right | direction = horizontal | header = | header_align = left/right/center | footer = Left, a Macedonian funerary [[stele]], with an [[epigram]] in [[Greek language|Greek]], mid-4th&nbsp;century&nbsp;BC, [[Vergina]]. Right, marble cult statue of [[Aphrodite Hypolympidia]], dated 2nd&nbsp;century&nbsp;BC, from the sanctuary of [[Isis]] at [[Dion, Pieria]], [[Central Macedonia]], Greece, now in the [[Archaeological Museum of Dion]].| footer_align = left | image1 = Relief inscribed stele, mid 4th century B.C., Archaeological Museum of Thessaloniki.jpg | width1 = 160 | caption1  = | image2 = Marble cult statue of Aphrodite Hypolympidia, from the santuary of Isis, 2nd c. BC, Archaeological Museum, Dion (7079958443).jpg | width2 = 160| caption2  = }}

===Language and dialects===
{{main|Ancient Macedonian language}}
{{further|History of Greek|Ancient Greek dialects}}

Following its adoption as the court language of [[Philip II of Macedon]]'s regime, authors of ancient Macedonia wrote their works in [[Koine Greek]], the ''[[lingua franca]]'' of late [[Classical Greece|Classical]] and [[Hellenistic Greece]].<ref group="note">{{harvnb|Hatzopoulos|2011a|p=44}}; {{harvnb|Woodard|2010|p=9}}; see also {{harvnb|Austin|2006|p=4}} for further details. <br />Edward M. Anson contends that the native [[spoken language]] of the Macedonians was a dialect of Greek and that in the roughly 6,300 Macedonian-period inscriptions discovered by archaeologists about 99% were written in the Greek language, using the [[Greek alphabet]]. {{harvnb|Anson|2010|p=17, n. 57, n. 58}}.</ref> Rare textual evidence indicates that the native Macedonian language was either a dialect of [[Greek language|Greek]] similar to [[Thessalian Greek]] and [[Northwestern Greek]],<ref group="note">{{harvnb|Hatzopoulos|2011a|p=44}}; {{harvnb|Engels|2010|pp=94–95}}; {{harvnb|Woodard|2010|pp=9–10}}. <br />{{harvnb|Hatzopoulos|2011a|pp=43–45}} states that the native language of the ancient Macedonians as preserved in the rare documents written in a language other than [[Koine Greek]] also betray a slight [[Phonetics|phonetic]] influence from the languages of the original inhabitants of the region who were [[Cultural assimilation|assimilated]] or expelled by the invading Macedonians; Hatzopoulos also asserts that little is known about these languages aside from [[Phrygian language|Phrygian]] spoken by the [[Bryges]] who migrated to [[Anatolia]]. <br />{{harvnb|Errington|1990|pp=3–4}} affirms that the Macedonian language was merely a dialect of Greek that used [[loanword]]s from [[Thracian language|Thracian]] and [[Illyrian languages]], which "does not surprise modern [[philologist]]s" but ultimately provided Macedonia's political enemies with the "proof" they needed to level the charge that Macedonians were not Greek.</ref> or a [[Hellenic languages|language closely related to Greek]].<ref group="note">{{harvnb|Woodard|2004|pp=12–14}}; Hamp, Eric; Adams, Douglas (2013). "[http://sino-platonic.org/complete/spp239_indo_european_languages.pdf The Expansion of the Indo-European Languages] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140222134950/http://sino-platonic.org/complete/spp239_indo_european_languages.pdf |date=2014-02-22 }}", ''Sino-Platonic Papers'', vol 239. Accessed 16 January 2017. <br />Joseph 2001: "Ancient Greek is generally taken to be the only representative (though note the existence of different dialects) of the Greek or Hellenic branch of Indo-European. There is some dispute as to whether Ancient Macedonian (the native language of Philip and Alexander), if it has any special affinity to Greek at all, is a dialect within Greek (see below) or a sibling language to all the known Ancient Greek dialects. If the latter view is correct, then Macedonian and Greek would be the two subbranches of a group within Indo-European which could more properly be called Hellenic."<br /> {{harvnb|Georgiev|1966|pp=285–297}}: ancient Macedonian is closely related to Greek, and Macedonian and Greek are descended from a common Greek-Macedonian idiom that was spoken till about the second half of the 3rd millennium BC.</ref> The vast majority of surviving inscriptions from ancient Macedonia were written in [[Attic Greek]] and its successor Koine.<ref>{{harvnb|Anson|2010|p=17, n. 57, n. 58}}; {{harvnb|Woodard|2010|pp=9–10}}; {{harvnb|Hatzopoulos|2011a|pp=43–45}}; {{harvnb|Engels|2010|pp=94–95}}.</ref> Attic (and later Koine) Greek was the preferred language of the [[Ancient Macedonian army]], although it is known that Alexander the Great once shouted an emergency order in Macedonian to his royal guards during the [[Symposium|drinking party]] where he killed [[Cleitus the Black]].<ref name="engels 2010 95">{{harvnb|Engels|2010|p=95}}.</ref> Macedonian became [[Extinct language|extinct]] in either the Hellenistic or the Roman period, and entirely replaced by Koine Greek.<ref name="engels 2010 94">{{harvnb|Engels|2010|p=94}}.</ref><ref group="note">For instance, [[Cleopatra VII Philopator]], the last active ruler of the Ptolemaic dynasty in Egypt, spoke Koine Greek as a first language and by her reign (51–30 BC) or some time before it the Macedonian language was no longer used. See {{harvnb|Jones|2006|pp=33–34}}.</ref>

===Religious beliefs and funerary practices===
{{main|Ancient Greek religion|Greek mythology|Hellenistic religion}}
{{further|Ancient Greek temple|Greek hero cult|Greco-Roman mysteries|Oracle of Delphi|Lion of Amphipolis|Lion of Chaeronea|Pella curse tablet}}

[[File:The Abduction of Persephone by Pluto, Amphipolis.jpg|thumb|A [[mosaic]] of the [[Kasta Tomb]] in [[Amphipolis]] depicting the abduction of [[Persephone]] by [[Pluto (mythology)|Pluto]], 4th{{nbsp}}century{{nbsp}}BC]]
[[File:Lion of Amphipolis BW 2017-10-05 09-38-25.jpg|thumb|upright|The [[Lion of Amphipolis]] in [[Amphipolis]], [[northern Greece]], a 4th-century{{nbsp}}BC marble tomb sculpture<ref name="Sansone 2017 223">{{harvnb|Sansone|2017|p=223}}.</ref> erected in honor of [[Laomedon of Mytilene]], a general who served under [[Alexander the Great]]]]
By the 5th century BC, the Macedonians and the southern Greeks worshiped more or less the [[List of Greek deities|same deities of the Greek pantheon]].<ref>{{harvnb|Anson|2010|pp=17–18}}; see also {{harvnb|Christesen|Murray|2010|pp=428–445}} for ways in which Macedonian religious beliefs diverged from mainstream Greek polytheism, although the latter was hardly "monolithic" throughout the Classical Greek and Hellenistic world and Macedonians were "linguistically and culturally Greek" according to Christesen and Murray. {{harvnb|Christesen|Murray|2010|pp=428–429}}.</ref> In Macedonia, political and religious offices were often intertwined. For instance, the head of state for the city of Amphipolis also served as the priest of [[Asklepios]], Greek god of medicine; a similar arrangement existed at [[Cassandreia]], where a cult priest honoring the city's founder [[Cassander]] was the nominal head of the city.<ref>{{harvnb|Errington|1990|pp=225–226}}.</ref> The main sanctuary of [[Zeus]] was maintained at [[Dion, Pieria|Dion]], while another at [[Veria]] was dedicated to [[Herakles]] and was patronized by [[Demetrius II Aetolicus]] ({{reign|239|229|era=BC}}).<ref>{{harvnb|Errington|1990|p=226}}; {{harvnb|Christesen|Murray|2010|pp=430–431}}</ref> Meanwhile, foreign [[Ancient Egyptian religion|cults from Egypt]] were fostered by the royal court, such as the temple of [[Sarapis]] at Thessaloniki.<ref name="errington 1990 226"/> The Macedonians also had relations with "international" cults; for example, Macedonian kings [[Philip III of Macedon]] and [[Alexander IV of Macedon]] made [[votive offering]]s to the internationally esteemed [[Samothrace temple complex]] of the [[Cabeiri]] [[mystery cult]].<ref name="errington 1990 226">{{harvnb|Errington|1990|p=226}}.</ref>

In the three royal tombs at [[Vergina]], professional painters decorated the walls with a mythological scene of [[Hades]] abducting [[Persephone]] and royal hunting scenes, while lavish [[grave goods]] including [[Ancient Greek military personal equipment|weapons, armor]], drinking vessels, and personal items were housed with the dead, whose bones [[Cremation|were burned]] before [[Ancient Greek funeral and burial practices|burial in golden coffins]].<ref>{{harvnb|Borza|1992|pp=257–260}}; {{harvnb|Christesen|Murray|2010|pp=432–433}}; see also {{harvnb|Hammond|Walbank|2001|pp=5–7}} for further details.</ref> Some grave goods and decorations were common in other Macedonian tombs, yet some items found at Vergina were distinctly tied to royalty, including a [[diadem]], luxurious goods, and arms and armor.<ref>{{harvnb|Borza|1992|pp=259–260}}; see also {{harvnb|Hammond|Walbank|2001|pp=5–6}} for further details.</ref> Scholars have debated about the identity of the tomb occupants since [[Manolis Andronikos|the discovery]] of their remains in 1977–1978,<ref>{{harvnb|Borza|1992|pp=257, 260–261}}.</ref> and recent research and forensic examination have concluded that at least one of the persons buried was Philip{{nbsp}}II.<ref group="note">{{harvnb|Sansone|2017|p=224}}; {{harvnb|Hammond|Walbank|2001|p=6}}. <br />Rosella Lorenzi (10 October 2014). "[http://www.seeker.com/remains-of-alexander-the-greats-father-confirmed-found-1769168761.html  Remains of Alexander the Great's Father Confirmed Found: King Philip II's bones are buried in a tomb along with a mysterious woman-warrior] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170118215400/http://www.seeker.com/remains-of-alexander-the-greats-father-confirmed-found-1769168761.html |date=2017-01-18 }}." ''Seeker''. Retrieved 17 January 2017.</ref> Located near Tomb{{nbsp}}1 are the above-ground ruins of a ''[[heroon]]'', a shrine for [[Cult (religion)|cult worship]] of the dead.<ref>{{harvnb|Borza|1992|p=257}}.</ref> In 2014, the ancient Macedonian [[Kasta Tomb]] was discovered outside of Amphipolis and is the largest ancient tomb found in Greece (as of 2017).<ref>{{harvnb|Sansone|2017|pp=224–225}}.</ref>

===Economics and social class===
{{main|Economy of ancient Greece}}
{{further|Slavery in ancient Greece|Prostitution in ancient Greece|Pederasty in ancient Greece}}

Young Macedonian men were typically expected to engage in [[hunting]] and martial combat as a by-product of their [[transhumance]] lifestyle of herding [[livestock]] such as goats and sheep, while [[horse breeding]] and raising [[cattle]] were other common pursuits.<ref>{{harvnb|Hatzopoulos|2011a|pp=47–48}}; {{harvnb|Errington|1990|p=7}}.</ref> Some Macedonians engaged in farming, often with [[irrigation]], [[land reclamation]], and [[horticulture]] activities supported by the Macedonian state.<ref group="note">{{harvnb|Hatzopoulos|2011a|pp=47–48}}; for a specific example of [[land reclamation]] near [[Amphipolis]] during the reign of [[Alexander the Great]], see {{harvnb|Hammond|Walbank|2001|p=31}}.</ref> The Macedonian economy and state finances were mainly supported by [[logging]] and by [[mining]] valuable [[mineral]]s such as copper, iron, gold, and silver.<ref>{{harvnb|Hatzopoulos|2011a|p=48}}; {{harvnb|Errington|1990|pp=7–8, 222–223}}.</ref> The conversion of these raw materials into finished products and the sale of those products encouraged the growth of urban centers and a gradual shift away from the traditional rustic Macedonian lifestyle during the course of the 5th{{nbsp}}century{{nbsp}}BC.<ref name="hatzopoulos 2011a 48">{{harvnb|Hatzopoulos|2011a|p=48}}.</ref>

The Macedonian king was an [[autocracy|autocratic]] figure at the head of both government and society, with arguably unlimited authority to handle affairs of state and public policy, but he was also the leader of a very personal regime with close relationships or connections to his ''[[hetairoi]]'', the core of the Macedonian [[aristocracy]].<ref>{{harvnb|Anson|2010|pp=9–10}}.</ref> These aristocrats were second only to the king in terms of power and privilege, filling the ranks of his administration and serving as commanding officers in the military.<ref name="anson 2010 10"/> It was in the more bureaucratic regimes of the [[Hellenistic kingdoms]] that succeeded Alexander the Great's empire where greater [[social mobility]] for members of society seeking to join the aristocracy could be found, especially in Ptolemaic Egypt.<ref>{{harvnb|Anson|2010|pp=10–11}}.</ref> Although governed by a king and martial aristocracy, Macedonia seems to have lacked the widespread [[History of slavery|use of slaves]] seen in contemporaneous Greek states.<ref>{{harvnb|Hammond|Walbank|2001|pp=12–13}}.</ref>

===Visual arts===
{{main|Ancient Greek art}}
{{further|Hellenistic art|Music in ancient Greece|Pottery of ancient Greece|Ancient Greek sculpture}}
{{multiple image| align = right | direction = horizontal | header = | header_align = left/right/center | footer = Left, a fresco of a [[Ancient Macedonian army|Macedonian soldier]] resting a spear and [[Kausia|wearing a cap]], from the tomb of [[Agios Athanasios, Thessaloniki]], 4th&nbsp;century&nbsp;BC. Right, fresco from the [[Tomb of Judgement, Lefkadia|Tomb of Judgement]] in ancient [[Mieza, Macedonia|Mieza]] (modern-day Lefkadia), [[Imathia]], [[Central Macedonia]], Greece, depicting religious imagery of [[Greek underworld|the afterlife]], 4th&nbsp;century&nbsp;BC.| footer_align = left | image1 = Fresco of a Macedonian soldier, from the Tomb of Agios Athanasios, 4th&nbsp;century&nbsp;BC.jpg | width1 = 145 | caption1  = | image2 = Ancient Mieza, Macedonian tombs of Lefkadia, The Tomb of Jugdement 545fddcedb8f434cdb346f41dbd838ec.jpg | width2 = 150| caption2  = }}

By the reign of [[Archelaus I of Macedon|Archelaus{{nbsp}}I]] in the 5th century BC, the ancient Macedonian elite was importing customs and artistic traditions from other regions of Greece while retaining more archaic, perhaps [[Homer]]ic, funerary rites connected with the [[symposium]] that were typified by items such as the decorative metal [[krater]]s that held the ashes of deceased Macedonian nobility in their tombs.<ref name="hardiman 2010 515">{{harvnb|Hardiman|2010|p=515}}.</ref> Among these is the large bronze [[Derveni Krater]] from a 4th-century{{nbsp}}BC tomb of Thessaloniki, decorated with scenes of the Greek god [[Dionysus]] and [[Cult of Dionysus|his entourage]] and belonging to an aristocrat who had had a military career.<ref>{{harvnb|Hardiman|2010|pp=515–517}}.</ref> Macedonian [[metalwork]] usually followed [[Pottery of ancient Greece|Athenian styles of vase shapes]] from the 6th{{nbsp}}century{{nbsp}}BC onward, with drinking vessels, jewellery, containers, crowns, [[diadem]]s, and [[Ancient Greek coinage|coins]] among the many metal objects found in Macedonian tombs.<ref name="hardiman 2010 517">{{harvnb|Hardiman|2010|p=517}}.</ref>

[[File:Lion hunt mosaic from Pella.jpg|thumb|[[Alexander the Great|Alexander]] (left), wearing a ''[[kausia]]'' and fighting an [[Asiatic lion]] with his friend [[Craterus]] (detail); late 4th-century{{nbsp}}BC [[mosaic]],<ref>{{harvnb|Palagia|2000|pp=182, 185–186}}.</ref> [[Pella]] Museum.]]
Surviving Macedonian painted artwork includes [[fresco]]es and [[mural]]s, but also decoration on [[Ancient Greek sculpture|sculpted artwork]] such as [[statue]]s and [[relief]]s. For instance, trace colors still exist on the [[bas-relief]]s of the late 4th-century BC [[Alexander Sarcophagus]].<ref>{{harvnb|Head|2016|pp=12–13}}; {{harvnb|Piening|2013|p=1182}}.</ref> Macedonian paintings have allowed historians to investigate the clothing fashions as well as military gear worn by the [[ancient Macedonians]].<ref>{{harvnb|Head|2016|p=13}}; {{harvnb|Aldrete|Bartell|Aldrete|2013|p=49}}.</ref> Aside from metalwork and painting, [[mosaic]]s are another significant form of surviving Macedonian artwork.<ref name="hardiman 2010 517"/> The [[Stag Hunt Mosaic]] of Pella, with its three-dimensional qualities and illusionist style, show clear influence from painted artwork and wider Hellenistic art trends, although the rustic theme of hunting was tailored to Macedonian tastes.<ref name="hardiman 2010 518">{{harvnb|Hardiman|2010|p=518}}.</ref> The similar Lion Hunt Mosaic of Pella illustrates either a scene of Alexander the Great with his companion [[Craterus]], or simply a conventional illustration of the royal diversion of hunting.<ref name="hardiman 2010 518"/> Mosaics with mythological themes include scenes of Dionysus riding a panther and [[Helen of Troy]] being abducted by [[Theseus]], the latter of which employs illusionist qualities and realistic shading similar to Macedonian paintings.<ref name="hardiman 2010 518"/> Common themes of Macedonian paintings and mosaics include warfare, hunting, and aggressive masculine sexuality (i.e. abduction of women for rape or marriage); these subjects are at times combined within a single work and perhaps indicate a metaphorical connection.<ref group="note">This metaphorical connection between warfare, hunting, and aggressive masculine sexuality seems to be affirmed by later [[Byzantine literature]], particularly in the [[Acritic songs]] about [[Digenes Akritas]]. See {{harvnb|Cohen|2010|pp=13–34}} for details.</ref>

===Theatre, music and performing arts===
{{Further|Theatre of ancient Greece|Music of ancient Greece}}

Philip II was assassinated in 336 BC at the theatre of [[Aegae (Macedonia)|Aigai]], amid games and spectacles celebrating the marriage of his daughter [[Cleopatra of Macedon|Cleopatra]].<ref name="muller 2010 182">{{harvnb|Müller|2010|p=182}}.</ref> Alexander the Great was allegedly a great admirer of both theatre and music.<ref name="errington 1990 224"/> He was especially fond of the [[Play (theatre)|plays]] by [[Classical Athenian]] [[tragedian]]s [[Aeschylus]], [[Sophocles]], and [[Euripides]], whose works formed part of a proper [[Education in ancient Greece|Greek education]] for his new eastern subjects alongside studies in the Greek language, including the [[Epic Cycle|epics]] of [[Homer]].<ref name="worthington 2014 186">{{harvnb|Worthington|2014|p=186}}.</ref> While he and his army were stationed at [[Tyre, Lebanon|Tyre]] (in modern-day Lebanon), Alexander had his generals act as judges not only for athletic contests but also for stage performances of Greek tragedies.<ref>{{harvnb|Worthington|2014|p=185}}.</ref> The contemporaneous famous actors [[Thessalus (actor)|Thessalus]] and Athenodorus performed at the event.<ref group="note">The actor Athenodorus performed despite risking a fine for being absent from the simultaneous [[Dionysia]] festival of Athens where he was scheduled to perform (a fine that his [[patron]] Alexander agreed to pay). See{{harvnb|Worthington|2014|pp=185–186}} for details.</ref>

[[History of music|Music]] was also appreciated in Macedonia. In addition to the [[agora]], the [[Gymnasium (ancient Greece)|gymnasium]], the [[theatre]], and [[Religious sanctuary|religious sanctuaries]] and [[Ancient Greek temple|temples]] dedicated to Greek gods and goddesses, one of the main markers of a true Greek city in the [[empire of Alexander the Great]] was the presence of an [[odeon (building)|odeon]] for [[Concert|musical performances]].<ref name="worthington 2014 183 186"/> This was the case not only for [[Alexandria]] in [[History of Egypt|Egypt]], but also for cities as distant as [[Ai-Khanoum]] in what is now modern-day [[History of Afghanistan|Afghanistan]].<ref name="worthington 2014 183 186">{{harvnb|Worthington|2014|pp=183, 186}}.</ref>

===Literature, education, philosophy, and patronage===
{{further|Literature in ancient Greece|Education in ancient Greece|Philosophy in ancient Greece|Hellenistic philosophy|Ancient Greek medicine|Ancient Macedonian calendar}}
[[File:Aristoteles Louvre.jpg|thumb|upright|[[Bust (sculpture)|Portrait bust]] of [[Aristotle]], an [[Roman Empire|Imperial Roman]] (1st or 2nd century{{nbsp}}AD) copy of a lost [[bronze sculpture]] made by [[Lysippos]]]]
[[Perdiccas II of Macedon]] was able to host well-known Classical Greek intellectual visitors at his royal court, such as the lyric poet [[Melanippides]] and the renowned medical doctor [[Hippocrates]], and [[Pindar]]'s ''[[encomium|enkomion]]'' written for [[Alexander I of Macedon]] may have been composed at his court.<ref>{{harvnb|Hatzopoulos|2011b|p=58}}; {{harvnb|Roisman|2010|p=154}}; {{harvnb|Errington|1990|pp=223–224}}.</ref> Archelaus{{nbsp}}I received many more Greek scholars, artists, and celebrities at his court than his predecessors.<ref>{{harvnb|Hatzopoulos|2011b|pp=58–59}}; see also {{harvnb|Errington|1990|p=224}} for further details.</ref> His honored guests included the [[History of painting#Egypt, Greece and Rome|painter]] [[Zeuxis (painter)|Zeuxis]], the [[Ancient Greek architecture|architect]] [[Callimachus (sculptor)|Callimachus]], the poets [[Choerilus of Samos]], [[Timotheus of Miletus]], and [[Agathon]], as well as the famous Athenian [[playwright]] [[Euripides]].<ref group="note">{{harvnb|Hatzopoulos|2011b|p=59}}; {{harvnb|Sansone|2017|p=223}}; {{harvnb|Roisman|2010|p=157}}. <br />Although [[Archelaus I of Macedon]] was criticized by the philosopher [[Plato]], supposedly hated by [[Socrates]], and the first known Macedonian king to be given the label of [[barbarian]], the historian [[Thucydides]] held the Macedonian king in glowing admiration, especially for his engagement in [[Panhellenic]] sports and fostering of literary culture. See {{harvnb|Hatzopoulos|2011b|p=59}}.</ref> The philosopher [[Aristotle]], who studied at the [[Platonic Academy]] of Athens and established the [[Aristotelianism|Aristotelian school of thought]], moved to Macedonia, and is said to have tutored the young Alexander the Great, as well as serving as an esteemed diplomat for Philip{{nbsp}}II.<ref>{{harvnb|Chroust|2016|p=137}}.</ref> Among Alexander's retinue of artists, writers, and philosophers was [[Pyrrho of Elis]], founder of [[Pyrrhonism]], the school of [[philosophical skepticism]].<ref name="worthington 2014 186"/> During the Antigonid period, [[Antigonos Gonatas]] fostered cordial relationships with [[Menedemos of Eretria]], founder of the [[Eretrian school]] of philosophy, and [[Zeno of Citium|Zenon]], the founder of [[Stoicism]].<ref name="errington 1990 224">{{harvnb|Errington|1990|p=224}}.</ref>

In terms of early [[Greek historiography]] and later [[Roman historiography]], [[Felix Jacoby]] identified thirteen possible ancient [[List of Greek historiographers|historians]] who wrote about Macedonia in his ''[[Fragmente der griechischen Historiker]]''.<ref name="Rhodes 2010 23">{{harvnb|Rhodes|2010|p=23}}.</ref> Aside from accounts in [[Herodotus]] and Thucydides, the works compiled by Jacoby are only fragmentary, whereas other works are completely lost, such as the history of an [[Illyria]]n war fought by [[Perdiccas III of Macedon|Perdiccas III]] written by Antipater.<ref>{{harvnb|Rhodes|2010|pp=23–25}}; see also {{harvnb|Errington|1990|p=224}} for further details.</ref> The Macedonian historians [[Marsyas of Pella]] and [[Marsyas of Philippi]] wrote histories of Macedonia, the [[Ptolemaic Egypt|Ptolemaic]] king [[Ptolemy I Soter]] authored a history about Alexander, and [[Hieronymus of Cardia]] wrote a history about Alexander's royal successors.<ref group="note">{{harvnb|Errington|1990|pp=224–225}}. <br />For [[Marsyas of Pella]], see also {{harvnb|Hammond|Walbank|2001|p=27}} for further details.</ref> Following the [[Indian campaign of Alexander the Great]], the Macedonian military officer [[Nearchus]] wrote a work of his [[travel literature|voyage]] from the mouth of the [[Indus river]] to the [[Persian Gulf]].<ref name="Errington 1990 225">{{harvnb|Errington|1990|p=225}}.</ref> The Macedonian [[Craterus (historian)|historian Craterus]] published a compilation of decrees made by [[Ecclesia (ancient Athens)|the popular assembly]] of the [[Athenian democracy]], ostensibly while attending the school of Aristotle.<ref name="Errington 1990 225"/> [[Philip V of Macedon]] had manuscripts of the history of Philip{{nbsp}}II written by [[Theopompus]] gathered by his court scholars and disseminated with further copies.<ref name="errington 1990 224"/>

===Sports and leisure===
{{further|History of sport#Ancient Greece|Gymnasium (ancient Greece)|Ancient Olympic Games|Music in ancient Greece}}
[[File:Hades and Persephone, Vergina.jpg|thumb|A fresco showing [[Hades]] and [[Persephone]] riding in a [[chariot]], from the tomb of Queen [[Eurydice I of Macedon]] at [[Vergina]], Greece, 4th{{nbsp}}century{{nbsp}}BC]]
When Alexander I of Macedon petitioned to compete in the [[foot race]] of the ancient Olympic Games, the event organizers at first denied his request, explaining that only Greeks were allowed to compete. However, Alexander{{nbsp}}I produced proof of an Argead royal [[genealogy]] showing ancient [[Argive]] [[Temenid]] lineage, a move that ultimately convinced the Olympic ''[[Hellanodikai]]'' authorities of his Greek descent and ability to compete.<ref>{{harvnb|Badian|1982|p=34}}, {{harvnb|Anson|2010|p=16}}; {{harvnb|Sansone|2017|pp=222–223}}.</ref> By the end of the 5th{{nbsp}}century{{nbsp}}BC, the Macedonian king Archelaus{{nbsp}}I was crowned with the [[olive wreath]] at both [[Olympia, Greece|Olympia]] and [[Delphi]] (in the [[Pythian Games]]) for winning [[chariot racing]] contests.<ref name="hatzopoulos 2011b 59">{{harvnb|Hatzopoulos|2011b|p=59}}.</ref> Philip{{nbsp}}II allegedly heard of the Olympic victory of his horse (in either an individual [[horse race]] or chariot race) on the same day his son Alexander the Great was born, on either 19 or 20{{nbsp}}July 356{{nbsp}}BC.<ref>{{harvnb|Nawotka|2010|p=2}}.</ref> Non-royal Macedonians also competed in and won various Olympic contests by the 4th century BC.<ref>{{harvnb|Anson|2010|p=19}}</ref> In addition to literary contests, Alexander the Great staged [[Music competition|competitions for music]] and athletics across his empire.<ref name="worthington 2014 186"/>

===Dining and cuisine===
{{further|Ancient Greek cuisine|Wine in ancient Greece}}
[[File:Banquet, tombe d'Agios Athanasios.jpg|thumb|A [[banquet]] scene from a Macedonian tomb of [[Agios Athanasios, Thessaloniki]], 4th{{nbsp}}century{{nbsp}}BC; shown are six men [[Symposium|reclining on couches]], with food arranged on nearby tables, a male servant in attendance, and female musicians providing entertainment.<ref>{{harvnb|Cohen|2010|p=28}}.</ref>]]

Ancient Macedonia produced only a few fine foods or beverages that were highly appreciated elsewhere in the Greek world, including [[eel]]s from the [[Strymonian Gulf]] and special [[History of wine|wine]] produced in [[Chalcidice]].<ref name="dalby 1997 157">{{harvnb|Dalby|1997|p=157}}.</ref> The earliest known use of flat bread as a plate for meat was made in Macedonia during the 3rd{{nbsp}}century{{nbsp}}BC, which perhaps influenced the later [[Trencher (tableware)|trencher bread]] of [[medieval Europe]].<ref name="dalby 1997 157"/> [[Cattle]] and [[goat]]s were consumed, although there was no notice of Macedonian mountain [[History of cheese|cheeses]] in literature until the [[Middle Ages]].<ref name="dalby 1997 157"/> The comedic playwright [[Menander]] wrote that Macedonian dining habits penetrated [[History of Athens|Athenian]] high society; for instance, the introduction of meats into the [[dessert]] course of a meal.<ref>{{harvnb|Dalby|1997|pp=155–156}}.</ref> The Macedonians also most likely introduced ''mattye'' to Athenian cuisine, a dish usually made of chicken or other spiced, salted, and sauced meats served [[Full course dinner|during the wine course]].<ref>{{harvnb|Dalby|1997|p=156}}.</ref> This particular dish was derided and connected with licentiousness and drunkenness in a play by the Athenian comic poet [[Alexis (poet)|Alexis]] about the declining morals of Athenians in the age of [[Demetrius I of Macedon]].<ref>{{harvnb|Dalby|1997|pp=156–157}}.</ref>

The ''[[symposium]]'' in the Macedonian and wider Greek realm was a banquet for the nobility and privileged class, an occasion for feasting, drinking, entertainment, and sometimes [[Symposium (Plato)|philosophical discussion]].<ref>{{harvnb|Anson|2010|p=10}}; {{harvnb|Cohen|2010|p=28}}.</ref> The ''[[hetairoi]]'', leading members of the Macedonian [[aristocracy]], were expected to attend such feasts with their king.<ref name="anson 2010 10">{{harvnb|Anson|2010|p=10}}.</ref> They were also expected to accompany him on royal hunts for the acquisition of [[game meat]] as well as for sport.<ref name="anson 2010 10"/>

===Ethnic identity===
{{main|Ancient Macedonians#Identity}}
{{see also|Macedonia (terminology)|Makedon (mythology)|Ethnography|Cultural anthropology}}
{{Multiple image
| total_width       = 200
| image1            = Macedonian boy BM 1906.10-19.1.jpg
| caption1          = Athenian terracotta figurine, c.&nbsp;300&nbsp;BC.
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| image2            = Terrakota Statue eines Makedoniers 3 Jhdt v Chr.jpg
| caption2          = Macedonian terracotta figurine, 3rd century&nbsp;BC
| footer            = [[Terracotta]] statues depicting [[ancient Macedonians]] wearing the ''[[kausia]]'', a headgear that led the [[Persians]] to refer to the Macedonians as "Yaunã Takabara" ("Greeks with hats that look like shields").<ref>{{harvnb|Engels|2010|p=87}}; {{harvnb|Olbrycht|2010|pp=343–344}}.</ref>
}}

Ancient authors and modern scholars alike disagree about the precise ethnic identity of the ancient Macedonians. The predominant viewpoint supports that the Macedonians were "truly Greeks" who had just retained a more archaic lifestyle than those living in southern parts of Greece.<ref name="Engels-2010-84">{{harvnb|Engels|2010|p=84}}.</ref>  [[Ernst Badian]] notes however that nearly all surviving references to antagonisms and differences between Greeks and Macedonians exist in the written speeches of [[Arrian]], who lived at the time of the [[Roman Empire]], when any notion of an ethnic disparity between Macedonians and other Greeks was incomprehensible.<ref>{{harvnb|Badian|1982|p=51, n. 72}}; Johannes Engels comes to a similar conclusion. See: {{harvnb|Engels|2010|p=82}}.</ref> Hatzopoulos argues that there was no real ethnic difference between Macedonians and the other Greeks, only a political distinction contrived after the creation of the [[League of Corinth]] in 337{{nbsp}}BC (which was led by Macedonia through the league's elected ''[[hegemon]]'' Philip{{nbsp}}II, when he was not a member of the league itself);<ref group="note">{{harvnb|Hatzopoulos|2011b|pp=69–71}}. <br />Hatzopoulos stresses the fact that Macedonians and other peoples such as the [[Epirus (ancient state)|Epirotes]] and [[History of Cyprus|Cypriots]], despite speaking a Greek dialect, worshiping in Greek cults, engaging in Panhellenic games, and upholding traditional Greek institutions, nevertheless occasionally had their territories excluded from contemporary geographic definitions of "[[Greece|Hellas]]" and were even considered barbarians by some. See: {{harvnb|Hatzopoulos|2011b|pp=52, 71–72}}; Johannes Engels comes to a similar conclusion about the comparison between Macedonians and [[Epirotes]], saying that the "Greekness" of the Epirotes, despite them not being considered as refined as southern Greeks, never came into question. Engels suggests this perhaps because the Epirotes did not try to dominate the Greek world as [[Philip II of Macedon]] had done. See: {{harvnb|Engels|2010|pp=83–84}}.</ref> [[N. G. L. Hammond]] asserts that ancient views differentiating Macedonia's ethnic identity from the rest of the Greek-speaking world should be seen as an expression of conflict between two different political systems: the democratic system of the city-states (e.g. Athens) versus the monarchy (Macedonia).<ref>{{cite book|last1=Hammond|first1=N.G.L.|title=The Genius of Alexander the Great|date=1997|publisher=The University of North Carolina Press|isbn=978-0-8078-2350-7|page=[https://archive.org/details/geniusofalexande00nglh/page/11 11]|quote=The other part of the Greek-speaking world extended from Pelagonia in the north to Macedonia in the south. It was occupied by several tribal states, which were constantly at war against Illyrians, Paeonians and Thracians. Each state had its own monarchy. Special prestige attached to the Lyncestae whose royal family, the Bacchiadae claimed descent from Heracles, and to the Macedonians, whose royal family had a similar ancestry. [...] In the opinion of the city-states these tribal states were backward and unworthy of the Greek name, although they spoke dialects of the Greek language. According to Aristotle, monarchy was the mark of people too stupid to govern themselves.|url=https://archive.org/details/geniusofalexande00nglh/page/11}}</ref> Other academics who concur that the difference between the Macedonians and Greeks was a political rather than a true ethnic discrepancy include Michael B. Sakellariou,<ref>{{harvnb|Sakellariou|1983|p=52}}.</ref> Malcolm Errington,<ref group="note">{{harvnb|Errington|1990|pp=3–4}}. <br />{{harvnb|Errington|1994|p=4}}: "Ancient allegations that the Macedonians were non-Greek all had their origin in Athens at the time of the struggle with Philip{{nbsp}}II. Then as now, political struggle created the prejudice. The orator [[Aeschines]] once even found it necessary, to counteract the prejudice vigorously fomented by his opponents, to defend Philip on this issue and describe him at a meeting of the Athenian Popular Assembly as being 'entirely Greek'. [[Demosthenes]]' allegations were lent an appearance of credibility by the fact, apparent to every observer, that the life-style of the Macedonians, being determined by specific geographical and historical conditions, was different to that of a Greek city-state. This alien way of life was, however, common to western Greeks of Epirus, Akarnania and Aitolia, as well as to the Macedonians, and their fundamental Greek nationality was never doubted. Only as a consequence of the political disagreement with Macedonia was the issue raised at all."</ref> and Craige B. Champion.<ref group="note">{{harvnb|Champion|2004|p=41}}: "[[Demosthenes]] could drop the barbarian category altogether in advocating an Athenian alliance with the Great King against a power that ranked below any so-called barbarian people, the Macedonians. In the case of [[Aeschines]], Philip{{nbsp}}II could be 'a barbarian due for the vengeance of God', but after the orator's embassy to Pella in 346, he became a 'thorough Greek', devoted to Athens. It all depended upon one's immediate political orientation with Macedonia, which many Greeks instinctively scorned, was always infused with deep-seated ambivalence."</ref>

Anson argues that some Hellenic authors expressed complex or even ever-changing and ambiguous ideas about the exact ethnic identity of the Macedonians, who were considered by some as barbarians and others as semi-Greek or fully Greek.<ref group="note">{{harvnb|Anson|2010|pp=14–17}}; this was manifested in the different [[Family tree of the Greek gods|mythological genealogies]] concocted for the Macedonian people, with [[Hesiod]]'s ''[[Catalogue of Women]]'' claiming that the Macedonians descended from [[Makedon (mythology)|Macedon]], son of [[Zeus]] and [[Thyia (mythology)|Thyia]], and was therefore a nephew of [[Hellen]], progenitor of the Greeks. See: {{harvnb|Anson|2010|p=16}}; {{harvnb|Rhodes|2010|p=24}}. <br />By the end of the 5th century BC, [[Hellanicus of Lesbos]] asserted Macedon was the son of [[Aeolus]], the latter a son of Hellen and ancestor of the [[Aeolians]], one of the major [[tribe]]s of the Greeks. As well as belonging to tribal groups such as the Aeolians, [[Dorians]], [[Achaeans (tribe)|Achaeans]], and [[Ionians]], Anson also stresses the fact that some Greeks even distinguished their ethnic identities based on the ''[[polis]]'' (i.e. city-state) they originally came from. See: {{harvnb|Anson|2010|p=15}}.</ref> Roger D. Woodard asserts that in addition to persisting uncertainty in modern times about the proper classification of the Macedonian language and its relation to Greek, ancient authors also presented conflicting ideas about the Macedonians.<ref group="note">For instance, [[Demosthenes]] when labeling Philip{{nbsp}}II of Macedon as a barbarian whereas [[Polybius]] called Greeks and Macedonians as ''homophylos'' (i.e. part of the same race or [[Kinship|kin]]). See: {{harvnb|Woodard|2010|pp=9–10}}; Johannes Engels also discusses this ambiguity in ancient sources: {{harvnb|Engels|2010|pp=83–89}}.</ref> [[Simon Hornblower]] argues on the Greek identity of the Macedonians, taking into consideration their origin, language, cults and customs related to ancient Greek traditions.<ref>{{cite book|author1=Simon Hornblower|editor1-last=Zacharia|editor1-first=Katerina|title=Hellenisms: Culture, Identity, and Ethnicity from Antiquity to Modernity|date=2016|publisher=Routledge|isbn=978-0-7546-6525-0|page=58|chapter=2: Greek Identity in the Archaic and Classical Periods|quote=The question "Were the Macedonians Greeks?" perhaps needs to be chopped up further. The Macedonian kings emerge as Greeks by criterion one, namely shared blood, and personal names indicate that Macedonians generally moved north from Greece. The kings, the elite, and the generality of the Macedonians were Greeks by criteria two and three, that is, religion and language. Macedonian customs (criterion four) were in certain respects unlike those of a normal apart, perhaps, from the institutions which I have characterized as feudal. The crude one-word answer to the question has to be "yes."}}</ref> Any preconceived ethnic differences between Greeks and Macedonians faded by 148{{nbsp}}BC soon after the [[Macedonian Wars|Roman conquest of Macedonia]] and then [[Macedonia (Roman province)|the rest of Greece]] with the defeat of the [[Achaean League]] by the [[Roman Republic]] at the [[Battle of Corinth (146 BC)]].<ref>{{harvnb|Hatzopoulos|2011b|p=74}}.</ref>