Editing Leadership (section)

== Leadership emergence ==
Leadership emergence is the idea that people born with specific characteristics become leaders, and those without these characteristics do not become leaders.

Many personality characteristics are reliably associated with leadership emergence.<ref name=":0">{{Cite book|title=Group Dynamics|author-link1=Donelson R. Forsyth|last=Forsyth|first=Donelson|publisher=Wadsworth|year=2010|location=Belmont, California}}</ref> The list includes, but is not limited to: assertiveness, authenticity, Big Five personality factors, birth order, character strengths, dominance, emotional intelligence, gender identity, intelligence, narcissism, self-efficacy for leadership, self-monitoring, and social motivation.<ref name=":0" />
Other areas of study in relation to how and why leaders emerge include narcissistic traits, absentee leaders, and participation.{{vague|date=August 2023}} Today's sophisticated research methods look at personality characteristics in combination to determine patterns of leadership emergence.<ref name=":1">{{cite book|last=Forsyth|first=D. R.|title=Group dynamics|year=2009|publisher=Wadsworth|location=New York|isbn=978-0495599524}}</ref>

Leaders like Mahatma Gandhi, Abraham Lincoln, and Nelson Mandela share traits that an average person does not. Research indicates that up to 30% of leader emergence has a genetic basis.<ref>{{cite book|last=Aamodt|first=M.G.|year=2010|title=I/O applications workbook: Industrial/organizational psychology an applied approach|location=Belmont, CA|publisher=Wadsworth}}</ref> No research has found a "leadership gene"; instead we inherit certain traits that might influence our decision to seek leadership. Anecdotal and empirical evidence support a stable relationship between specific traits and leadership behavior.<ref>Law, J.R. (1996). ''Rising to the occasion: foundations, processes, and outcomes of emergent leadership''.{{full citation needed|date=August 2023}}</ref>{{full citation needed|date=August 2023}} Using a large international sample researchers found three factors that motivate leaders: affective identity (enjoyment of leading), non-calculative (leading earns reinforcement), and social-normative (sense of obligation).<ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Chan | first1 = K. | last2 = Drasgow | first2 = F. | year = 2001 | title = Toward a theory of individual differences and leadership: Understanding the motivation to lead | url = https://archive.org/details/sim_journal-of-applied-psychology_2001-06_86_3/page/481 | journal = Journal of Applied Psychology | volume = 86 | issue = 3| pages = 481–498 | doi = 10.1037/0021-9010.86.3.481 | pmid = 11419808 }}</ref>

=== Assertiveness ===

The relationship between [[assertiveness]] and leadership emergence is curvilinear: individuals who are either low in assertiveness or very high in assertiveness are less likely to be identified as leaders.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Ames|first1=Daniel R.|last2=Flynn|first2=Francis J.|title=What breaks a leader: The curvilinear relation between assertiveness and leadership.|url=https://archive.org/details/sim_journal-of-personality-and-social-psychology_2007-02_92_2/page/307|journal=Journal of Personality and Social Psychology|volume=92|issue=2|pages=307–324|doi=10.1037/0022-3514.92.2.307|pmid=17279851|year=2007}}</ref>

=== Authenticity ===
{{Further|authentic leadership}}

Individuals who are more aware of their personality qualities, including their values and beliefs, and are less biased when processing self-relevant information, are more likely to be accepted as leaders.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Ilies|first1=Remus|last2=Morgeson|first2=Frederick P.|author2-link=Frederick P. Morgeson|last3=Nahrgang|first3=Jennifer D.|date=2005-06-01|title=Authentic leadership and eudaemonic well-being: Understanding leader–follower outcomes|url=https://scholars.opb.msu.edu/en/publications/authentic-leadership-and-eudaemonic-well-being-understanding-lead-2|journal=The Leadership Quarterly|language=en|volume=16|issue=3|pages=373–394|doi=10.1016/j.leaqua.2005.03.002|issn=1048-9843|citeseerx=10.1.1.318.5548|access-date=2017-02-16|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170216130505/https://scholars.opb.msu.edu/en/publications/authentic-leadership-and-eudaemonic-well-being-understanding-lead-2|archive-date=2017-02-16|url-status=dead}}</ref>

=== Big Five personality factors ===

Those who emerge as leaders tend to be more extroverted, conscientious, emotionally stable, and open to experience, although these tendencies are stronger in laboratory studies of leaderless groups.<ref name="Judge, T.A. 2002"/> However, introversion–extroversion appears to be the most influential quality in leadership emergence; specifically, leaders tend to be high in extroversion.<ref name=":1" /> Introversion–extroversion is also the quality that can be judged most easily among those in the Big Five Traits.<ref name=":1" /> Agreeableness, the last factor of the Big Five personality traits, does not seem to play any meaningful role in leadership emergence.<ref name="Judge, T.A. 2002"/>

=== Birth order ===

Those born first in their families, and only children, are hypothesized to be more driven to seek leadership and control in social settings. Middle-born children tend to accept follower roles in groups, and later-borns are thought to be rebellious and creative.<ref name=":0" />

=== Character strengths ===

Those seeking leadership positions in a military organization had elevated scores on a number of indicators of strength of character, including honesty, hope, bravery, industry, and teamwork.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Matthews|first1=Michael D.|last2=Eid|first2=Jarle|last3=Kelly|first3=Dennis|last4=Bailey|first4=Jennifer K. S.|last5=Peterson|first5=Christopher|title=Character strengths and virtues of developing military leaders: An international comparison|journal=Military Psychology|volume=18|issue=Suppl|pages=S57–S68|doi=10.1207/s15327876mp1803s_5|year=2006|s2cid=144181852}}</ref>

=== Dominance ===

Individuals with dominant personalities (they describe themselves as high in the desire to control their environment and influence other people, and are likely to express their opinions in a forceful way) are more likely to act as leaders in small-group situations.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Smith|first1=Jeffrey A.|last2=Foti|first2=Roseanne J.|url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S1048984398900029|volume=9|number=2|year=1998|title=A pattern approach to leader emergence|journal=The Leadership Quarterly|language=en|pages=147–160|doi=10.1016/S1048-9843(98)90002-9}}</ref>

=== Emotional intelligence ===

Individuals with high emotional intelligence have increased ability to understand and relate to people. They have skills in communicating and decoding emotions and they deal with others wisely and effectively.<ref name=":0" /> Such people communicate their ideas in more robust ways, are better able to read the politics of a situation, are less likely to lose control of their emotions, are less likely to be inappropriately angry or critical, and in consequence are more likely to emerge as leaders.<ref>{{Cite book|title=New leaders |isbn=9780751533811|oclc=891670377|last1 = Goleman|first1 = Daniel|last2=Boyatzis|first2=Richard E.|last3=McKee|first3=Annie|year=2003|publisher=Sphere }}</ref>

=== Intelligence ===

Individuals with higher intelligence exhibit superior judgement, higher verbal skills (both written and oral), quicker learning and acquisition of knowledge, and are more likely to emerge as leaders.<ref name=":0" /> Correlation between IQ and leadership emergence was found to be between .25 and .30.<ref>{{Cite book|title=Bass & Stogdill's handbook of leadership: theory, research, and managerial applications|first1=Ralph Melvin|last1=Stogdill|first2=Bernard M.|last2=Bass|year=1990|publisher=Simon and Schuster|isbn=9780029015001|oclc=959443394}}</ref> However, groups generally prefer leaders that do not exceed in intelligence the prowess of average member by a wide margin, as they fear that high intelligence may be translated to differences in communication, trust, interests, and values.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Simonton|first=Dean K.|title=Intelligence and personal influence in groups: Four nonlinear models|journal=Psychological Review|volume=92|issue=4|pages=532–547|doi=10.1037/0033-295x.92.4.532|year=1985}}</ref>

=== Self-efficacy for leadership ===

An individual's belief in their ability to lead is associated with an increased willingness to accept a leadership role and find success in its pursuit.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Hoyt|first1=C. L.|last2=Blascovich|first2=J.|date=2016-07-26|title=Leadership Efficacy and Women Leaders' Responses to Stereotype Activation|journal=Group Processes & Intergroup Relations|language=en|volume=10|issue=4|pages=595–616|doi=10.1177/1368430207084718|s2cid=53406267|url=https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/1368430207084718}}</ref>

There are no set conditions for this characteristic to become emergent. However, it must be sustained by an individual's belief that they have the ability to learn and improve it with time. Individuals partly evaluate their own capabilities by observing others; working with a superior who is seen as an effective leader may help the individual develop a belief that he or she can perform in a similar manner.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Paglis|first1=L.L.|last2=Green|first2=S.G.|date=2002-03-01|title=Leadership Self-Efficacy and Managers' Motivation for Leading Change|journal=Journal of Organizational Behavior|language=en|volume=23|issue=2|pages=215–35|doi=10.1002/job.137 |doi-access=free}}</ref>

=== Self-monitoring ===

Individuals who closely manage and adjust their behavior based on the social context, often referred to as high self-monitors, have a greater tendency to assume leadership roles within a group. This propensity is attributed to their heightened interest in elevating their status and their readiness to conform their actions to match the requirements of the given situation.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Bedeian|first1=Arthur G.|last2=Day|first2=David V.|journal=The Leadership Quarterly|volume=15|number=5|date=2004|pages=687–718|url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S1048984304000839|title=Can chameleons lead?|doi=10.1016/j.leaqua.2004.07.005 |language=en|access-date=2017-02-16}}</ref>

=== Social motivation ===

People who exhibit both a drive for achievement and a desire for social connections tend to participate actively in group-based efforts to solve problems. Additionally, they have a higher likelihood of being chosen as leaders within these groups.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Sorrentino|first1=Richard M.|last2=Field|first2=Nigel|title=Emergent leadership over time: The functional value of positive motivation|journal=Journal of Personality and Social Psychology|volume=50|issue=6|pages=1091–1099|doi=10.1037/0022-3514.50.6.1091|year=1986}}</ref>

=== Narcissism, hubris and other negative traits ===

A number of negative traits of leadership have also been studied. Individuals who take on leadership roles in turbulent situations, such as groups facing a threat or ones in which status is determined by intense competition among rivals within the group, tend to be narcissistic: arrogant, self-absorbed, hostile, and very self-confident.<ref>{{Cite journal|first1=Seth A.|last1=Rosenthal|first2=Todd L.|last2=Pittinsky|journal=The Leadership Quarterly|title=Narcissistic Leadership|url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S1048984306001111|year=2006|volume=17 |issue=6 |pages=617–633|doi=10.1016/j.leaqua.2006.10.005 |language=en}}</ref>

=== Absentee leader ===
Existing research has shown that absentee leaders—those who rise into power, but not necessarily because of their skills, and who are marginally engaging with their role—are actually worse than destructive leaders, because it takes longer to pinpoint their mistakes.<ref>{{Cite news|last=Gregory|first=Scott|date=2018-03-30|title=The Most Common Type of Incompetent Leader|work=Harvard Business Review|url=https://hbr.org/2018/03/the-most-common-type-of-incompetent-leader|access-date=2020-09-23|issn=0017-8012}}</ref>

=== Willingness to participate ===
A willingness to participate in a group can indicate a person's interest as well as their willingness to take responsibility for how the group performs.<ref name=":1" /> Those who do not say much during a group meeting are less likely to emerge as a leader than those who speak up.<ref name=":1" /> There is however some debate over whether the quality of participation in a group matters more than the quantity.

A hypothesis termed [[Babble hypothesis|the 'babble effect' or the 'babble hypothesis']] has been studied as a factor in the emergence of leaders.<ref name=":2">{{Cite journal|last1=MacLaren|first1=Neil G.|last2=Yammarino|first2=Francis J.|last3=Dionne|first3=Shelley D.|last4=Sayama|first4=Hiroki|last5=Mumford|first5=Michael D.|last6=Connelly|first6=Shane|last7=Martin|first7=Robert W.|last8=Mulhearn|first8=Tyler J.|last9=Todd|first9=E. Michelle|last10=Kulkarni|first10=Ankita|last11=Cao|first11=Yiding|date=October 2020|title=Testing the babble hypothesis: Speaking time predicts leader emergence in small groups|journal=The Leadership Quarterly|language=en|volume=31|issue=5|pages=101409|doi=10.1016/j.leaqua.2020.101409|s2cid=213370303 |doi-access=free}}</ref> It posits that leader emergence is highly correlated with the quantity of speaking time—specifically, those who speak a lot in a group setting are more likely to become a group leader.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Mast|first1=Marianne Schmid|last2=Hall|first2=Judith A.|year=2004 |title=Who Is the Boss and Who Is Not? Accuracy of Judging Status|url=http://link.springer.com/10.1023/B:JONB.0000039647.94190.21|journal=Journal of Nonverbal Behavior |language=en |volume=28 |issue=3 |pages=145–165 |doi=10.1023/B:JONB.0000039647.94190.21|s2cid=54492090 |issn=0191-5886}}</ref><ref name=":2" />

The quantity of participation is more important that the quality of these contributions when it comes to leader emergence.<ref name=":1" /> However, some studies indicate that there must be some element of quality combined with quantity to support leader emergence. Thus, while sheer quantity does matter to leadership, when the contributions made are also of high-quality leader emergence is further facilitated.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Jones|first1=Eric E.|last2=Kelly|first2=Janice R.|date=2007|title=Contributions to a group discussion and perceptions of leadership: Does quantity always count more than quality?|url=https://psycnet.apa.org/doiLanding?doi=10.1037%2F1089-2699.11.1.15|journal=Group Dynamics: Theory, Research, and Practice|language=en|volume=11|issue=1|pages=15–30|doi=10.1037/1089-2699.11.1.15|issn=1930-7802}}</ref>