Editing Henry III of England (section)

== Later reign (1258–1272) ==
=== Revolution ===
[[File:Edward I - Westminster Abbey Sedilia.jpg|thumb|upright=1.2|Probable late 13th or early 14th century depiction of Henry's eldest son, Edward]]

In 1258, Henry faced a revolt among the English barons.<ref>{{Harvnb|Howell|2001|pp=152–153}}; {{Harvnb|Carpenter|2004|p=347}}</ref> Anger had grown about the way the King's officials were raising funds, the influence of the Poitevins at court, and his unpopular Sicilian policy, and resentment of abuse of purchased Jewish loans.<ref name=hillaby2013p5353/> Even the English Church had grievances over its treatment by the King.<ref>{{Harvnb|Howell|2001|p=153}}; {{Harvnb|Carpenter|2004|pp=347–349}}</ref> The Welsh were still in open revolt and now allied themselves with Scotland.<ref name=ODNB/>

Henry was also critically short of money. Although he still had some reserves of gold and silver, they were totally insufficient to cover his potential expenditures, including the campaign for Sicily and his debts to the Papacy.<ref>{{Harvnb|Carpenter|1996|pp=122–123}}</ref> Critics suggested darkly that he had never really intended to join the crusades, and was simply intending to profit from the crusading tithes.<ref>{{Harvnb|Tyerman|1996|pp=113–114}}</ref> To compound the situation, the harvests in England failed.<ref name=ODNB/> Within Henry's court there was a strong feeling that the King would be unable to lead the country through these problems.<ref>{{Harvnb|Carpenter|1996|p=99}}</ref>

The discontent finally erupted in April, when seven of the major English and Savoyard barons – Simon de Montfort, Roger and Hugh Bigod, [[John Fitzgeoffrey]], [[Peter de Montfort]], Peter de Savoy, and Richard de Clare – secretly formed an alliance to expel the Lusignans from the court, a move probably quietly supported by the Queen.<ref>{{Harvnb|Jobson|2012|pp=18–19}}; {{Harvnb|Howell|2001|p=153}}; {{Harvnb|Ridgeway|2004}}</ref> On 30 April, Roger Bigod marched into Westminster in the middle of the King's parliament, backed by his co-conspirators, and carried out a [[coup d'état]].<ref>{{Harvnb|Howell|2001|p=153}}; {{Harvnb|Carpenter|1996|p=99}}</ref> Henry, fearful that he was about to be arrested and imprisoned, agreed to abandon his policy of personal rule and instead govern through a council of 24 barons and churchmen, half chosen by the King and half by the barons.<ref>{{Harvnb|Howell|2001|pp=154–154}}; {{Harvnb|Jobson|2012|p=20}}</ref> His own nominees to the council drew heavily on the hated Lusignans.<ref>{{Harvnb|Jobson|2012|p=21}}</ref>

The pressure for reform continued unabated and a fresh parliament met in June, passing a set of measures known as the [[Provisions of Oxford]], which Henry swore to uphold.<ref>{{Harvnb|Howell|2001|p=156}}; {{Harvnb|Jobson|2012|pp=22, 25}}</ref> These provisions created a smaller council of 15 members, elected solely by the barons, which then had the power to appoint England's justiciar, chancellor, and treasurer, and which would be monitored through triannual parliaments.<ref>{{Harvnb|Howell|2001|p=156}}</ref>{{Efn|The actual election procedure for the council was, as historian Adrian Jobson describes, "rather convoluted"; the twelve Royalist members of the first, Bigod-inspired council elected two nominees, followed by the twelve baronial members electing an additional two nominees; these four men would then elect the remainder of the council. The result was a heavily baronial council.<ref>{{Harvnb|Jobson|2012|p=24}}</ref>}} Pressure from the lesser barons and the gentry present at Oxford also helped to push through wider reform, intended to limit the abuse of power by both Henry's officials and the major barons.<ref>{{Harvnb|Jobson|2012|pp=22–23}}; {{Harvnb|Carpenter|2004|p=371}}</ref> The elected council included representatives of the Savoyard faction but no Poitevins, and the new government immediately took steps to exile the leading Lusignans and to seize key castles across the country.<ref>{{Harvnb|Howell|2001|pp=156–157}}; {{Harvnb|Jobson|2012|p=25}}</ref>

The disagreements between the leading barons involved in the revolt soon became evident.<ref>{{Harvnb|Jobson|2012|p=33}}</ref> Simon championed radical reforms that would place further limitations on the authority and power of the major barons as well as the Crown; others, such as Hugh Bigod, promoted only moderate change, while the conservative barons, such as Richard, expressed concerns about the existing limitations on the King's powers.<ref>{{Harvnb|Jobson|2012|pp=33–34}}</ref> Henry's son, Edward, initially opposed the revolution, but then allied himself with Simon, helping him to pass the radical [[Provisions of Westminster]] in 1259, which introduced further limits on the major barons and local royal officials.<ref>{{Harvnb|Jobson|2012|pp=26, 38–43}}</ref>

=== Crisis ===
[[File:Louis9+Henri3+StDenis.jpg|thumb|upright=1.8|14th century representation of Henry visiting [[Louis IX of France]]]] 

Over the next four years, neither Henry nor the barons were able to restore stability in England, and power swung back and forth between the different factions.<ref>{{Harvnb|Carpenter|2004|pp=372–377}}</ref> One of the priorities for the new regime was to settle the long-running dispute with France and, at the end of 1259, Henry and Eleanor left for Paris to negotiate the final details of a [[Treaty of Paris (1259)|peace treaty]] with Louis IX, escorted by Simon and much of the baronial government.<ref>{{Harvnb|Jobson|2012|pp=21, 45–46}}</ref> Under the treaty, Henry gave up any claim to his family's lands in the north of France but was confirmed as the legitimate ruler of Gascony and various neighbouring territories in the south, giving homage and recognising Louis as his feudal lord for these possessions.<ref>{{Harvnb|Jobson|2012|p=46}}</ref>

When Simon returned to England, Henry, supported by Eleanor, remained in Paris, where he seized the opportunity to reassert royal authority and began to issue royal orders independently of the barons.<ref>{{Harvnb|Jobson|2012|p=47}}</ref> Henry finally returned to retake power in England in April 1260, where conflict was brewing between Richard de Clare's forces and those of Simon and Edward.<ref>{{Harvnb|Jobson|2012|pp=51–52}}</ref> Henry's brother Richard mediated between the parties and averted a military confrontation; Edward was reconciled with his father and Simon was put on trial for his actions against the King.<ref>{{Harvnb|Jobson|2012|pp=51–53}}</ref> Henry was unable to maintain his grip on power, and in October a coalition headed by Simon, Richard, and Edward briefly seized back control; within months their baronial council had collapsed into chaos as well.<ref>{{Harvnb|Jobson|2012|pp=54–56}}</ref>

Henry continued publicly to support the Provisions of Oxford, but he secretly opened discussions with [[Pope Urban IV]], hoping to be absolved from the oath he had made at Oxford.<ref>{{Harvnb|Jobson|2012|pp=57–59}}</ref> In June 1261, the King announced that Rome had released him from his promises and he promptly held a counter-coup with the support of Edward.<ref name=Jobson2012PP6164>{{Harvnb|Jobson|2012|pp=61–64, 66}}</ref> He purged the ranks of the sheriffs of his enemies and seized back control of many of the royal castles.<ref name=Jobson2012PP6164/> The baronial opposition, led by Simon and Richard, were temporarily reunited in their opposition to Henry's actions, convening their own parliament, independent of the King, and establishing a rival system of local government across England.<ref>{{Harvnb|Jobson|2012|pp=64–67, 69}}</ref> Henry and Eleanor mobilised their own supporters and raised a foreign mercenary army.<ref name=Jobson2012PP70>{{Harvnb|Jobson|2012|pp=70–71}}</ref> Facing the threat of open civil war, the barons backed down: de Clare switched sides once again, Simon left for exile in France and the baronial resistance collapsed.<ref name=Jobson2012PP70/>

Henry's government relied primarily on Eleanor and her Savoyard supporters, and it proved short-lived.<ref>{{Harvnb|Jobson|2012|p=77}}</ref> He attempted to settle the crisis permanently by forcing the barons to agree to the Treaty of Kingston.<ref>{{Harvnb|Jobson|2012|p=73}}</ref> This treaty introduced a system of arbitration to settle outstanding disputes between the King and the barons, using Richard as an initial adjudicator, backed up by Louis of France should Richard fail to generate a compromise.<ref>{{Harvnb|Jobson|2012|pp=73–74}}</ref> Henry softened some of his policies in response to the concerns of the barons, but he soon began to target his political enemies and recommence his unpopular Sicilian policy.<ref>{{Harvnb|Jobson|2012|pp=74–76}}</ref> He had done nothing significant to deal with the concerns over Baronial and royal abuse of Jewish debts.<ref name="Stacey 2003 52"/> 

Henry's government was weakened by the death of Richard, as his heir, [[Gilbert de Clare, 7th Earl of Gloucester]], sided with the radicals; the King's position was further undermined by major Welsh incursions along the Marches and the Pope's decision to reverse his judgment on the Provisions, this time confirming them as legitimate.<ref>{{Harvnb|Jobson|2012|pp=79–82}}</ref> By early 1263, Henry's authority had disintegrated and the country slipped back towards open civil war.<ref>{{Harvnb|Jobson|2012|p=84}}</ref>

=== Second Barons' War ===
{{Main|Second Barons' War}}
[[File:Montfort Evesham.jpg|thumb|upright=1.8|A 13th century depiction of the mutilation of [[Simon de Montfort]]'s body following the [[Battle of Evesham]] in 1265]]

Simon returned to England in April 1263 and convened a council of rebel barons in Oxford to pursue a renewed anti-Poitevin agenda.<ref>{{Harvnb|Jobson|2012|pp=84–85}}</ref> Revolt broke out shortly afterwards in the Welsh Marches and, by October, England faced a likely civil war between Henry, backed by Edward, Hugh Bigod, and the conservative barons, and Simon, Gilbert de Clare, and the radicals.<ref>{{Harvnb|Jobson|2012|pp=86–89}}; {{Harvnb|Carpenter|2004|pp=374–375}}</ref> The rebels leveraged concern among knights over abuse of Jewish loans, who feared losing their lands, a problem Henry had done much to create and nothing to solve.<ref name="Stacey 2003 53">{{Harvnb|Stacey|2003|p=53}}</ref> In each case following, the rebels employed violence and killings in a deliberate attempt to destroy the records of their debts to Jewish lenders.<ref>{{Harvnb|Huscroft|2006|pp=105–106}}</ref>

Simon marched east with an army and London rose up in revolt, where 500 Jews died.<ref>{{Harvnb|Jobson|2012|pp=91–92}}</ref> Henry and Eleanor were trapped in the Tower of London by the rebels. The Queen attempted to escape up the [[River Thames]] to join Edward's army at Windsor but was forced to retreat by the London crowds.<ref>{{Harvnb|Jobson|2012|pp=92–93}}</ref> Simon took the pair prisoners, and although he maintained a fiction of ruling in Henry's name, the rebels completely replaced the royal government and household with their own trusted men.<ref>{{Harvnb|Wild|2011|pp=41–42, 48}}</ref>

Simon's coalition quickly began to fragment, Henry regained his freedom of movement and renewed chaos spread across England.<ref>{{Harvnb|Jobson|2012|p=100}}</ref> Henry appealed to Louis of France for arbitration in the dispute, as had been laid out in the Treaty of Kingston; Simon was initially hostile to this idea, but, as war became more likely again, he decided to agree to French arbitration as well.<ref>{{Harvnb|Jobson|2012|pp=100–103}}</ref> Henry went to Paris in person, accompanied by Simon's representatives.<ref>{{Harvnb|Jobson|2012|p=103}}</ref> Initially Simon's legal arguments held sway, but in January 1264, Louis announced the [[Mise of Amiens]], condemning the rebels, upholding the King's rights and annulling the Provisions of Oxford.<ref>{{Harvnb|Jobson|2012|pp=13–105}}; {{Harvnb|Hallam|Everard|2001|p=283}}</ref> Louis had strong views of his own on the rights of kings over those of barons, but was also influenced by his wife, Margaret, who was Eleanor's sister, and by the Pope.<ref>{{Harvnb|Hallam|Everard|2001|p=283}}</ref>{{Efn|The wording of Louis's judgement in the case also appears to suggest that Louis believed that he had feudal authority over Henry, as a consequence of Henry having given homage to him for Gascony.<ref>{{Harvnb|Hallam|Everard|2001|p=337}}</ref>}} Leaving Eleanor in Paris to assemble mercenary reinforcements, Henry returned to England in February 1264, where violence was brewing in response to the unpopular French decision.<ref>{{Harvnb|Jobson|2012|pp=107–109}}; {{Harvnb|Howell|2001|p=208}}</ref>

[[File:England and France 1259.jpg|thumb|upright=1.2|England and France after the [[1259 Treaty of Paris]]]]
The [[Second Barons' War]] finally broke out in April 1264, when Henry led an army into Simon's territories in the Midlands, and then advanced south-east to re-occupy the important route to France.<ref>{{Harvnb|Jobson|2012|pp=109–112}}</ref> Becoming desperate, Simon marched in pursuit of Henry and the two armies met at the [[Battle of Lewes]] on 14 May.<ref>{{Harvnb|Jobson|2012|pp=113–115}}</ref> Despite their numerical superiority, Henry's forces were overwhelmed.<ref name=Jobson2012PP115>{{Harvnb|Jobson|2012|pp=115, 117}}</ref> His brother Richard was captured, and Henry and Edward retreated to the local priory and surrendered the following day.<ref name=Jobson2012PP115/> Henry was forced to pardon the rebel barons and reinstate the Provisions of Oxford, leaving him, as historian Adrian Jobson describes, "little more than a figurehead".<ref>{{Harvnb|Jobson|2012|pp=117, 122}}</ref> With Henry's power diminished, Simon cancelled many debts and interest owed to Jews, including those held by his baronial supporters.<ref>{{Harvnb|Jobson|2012|p=132}} {{Harvnb|Hillaby|Hillaby|2013|pp=656–657}}</ref>{{Efn|"After Simon's victory at the battle of Lewes in May 1264, some 60 men received royal writs pardoning debts and interest owed to Jews. The beneficiaries included prominent supporters, such as John d'Eyville and Simon's own retainers."<ref>{{Harvnb|Hillaby|Hillaby|2013|pp=656–657}}</ref>}}

Simon was unable to consolidate his victory and widespread disorder persisted across the country.<ref>{{Harvnb|Jobson|2012|pp=119–120}}</ref> In France, Eleanor made plans for an invasion of England with the support of Louis, while Edward escaped his captors in May and formed a new army with Gilbert de Clare, who switched sides to the royal government.<ref>{{Harvnb|Jobson|2012|pp=120–121, 136–137}}</ref> He pursued Simon's forces through the Marches, before striking east to attack his fortress at [[Kenilworth]] and then turning once more on the rebel leader himself.<ref>{{Harvnb|Jobson|2012|pp=138–141}}</ref> Simon, accompanied by the captive Henry, was unable to retreat and the [[Battle of Evesham]] ensued.<ref>{{Harvnb|Jobson|2012|pp=140–142, 144}}</ref>

Edward was triumphant and Simon's corpse was mutilated by the victors. Henry, who was wearing borrowed armour, was almost killed by Edward's forces during the fighting before they recognised the King and escorted him to safety.<ref>{{Harvnb|Jobson|2012|pp=140–146}}</ref> In places the now leaderless rebellion dragged on, with some rebels gathering at [[Kenilworth Castle]], which Henry and Edward took after a long siege in 1266.<ref>{{Harvnb|Jobson|2012|pp=149–152, 154–157}}</ref> They continued targeting Jews and their debt records.<ref name="Stacey 2003 53"/> The remaining pockets of resistance were mopped up, and the final rebels, holed up in the [[Isle of Ely]], surrendered in July 1267, marking the end of the war.<ref>{{Harvnb|Carpenter|2004|p=381}}; {{Harvnb|Jobson|2012|p=155}}</ref>

=== Reconciliation and reconstruction ===
Henry quickly took revenge on his enemies after the Battle of Evesham.<ref>{{Harvnb|Jobson|2012|p=150}}; {{Harvnb|Carpenter|2004|p=381}}</ref> He immediately ordered the [[Sequestration (law)|sequestration]] of all the rebel lands, triggering a wave of chaotic looting across the country.<ref>{{Harvnb|Jobson|2012|pp=150–151}}; {{Harvnb|Carpenter|2004|p=381}}</ref> Henry initially rejected any calls for moderation, but in October 1266 he was persuaded by Papal Legate [[Ottobuono de' Fieschi]] to issue a less draconian policy, called the [[Dictum of Kenilworth]], which allowed for the return of the rebels' lands, in exchange for the payment of harsh fines.<ref>{{Harvnb|Jobson|2012|pp=152, 156–157}}</ref> The [[Statute of Marlborough]] followed in November 1267, which effectively reissued much of the Provisions of Westminster, placing limitations on the powers of local royal officials and the major barons, but without restricting central royal authority.<ref name="Jobson 2012 162–163">{{Harvnb|Jobson|2012|pp=162–163}}; {{Harvnb|Carpenter|2004|p=382}}</ref> Most of the exiled Poitevins began to return to England after the war.<ref>{{Harvnb|Ridgeway|1988|pp=91–92}}</ref> In September 1267 Henry made the [[Treaty of Montgomery]] with Llywelyn, recognising him as the Prince of Wales and giving substantial land concessions.<ref>{{Harvnb|Jobson|2012|pp=161–162}}</ref>

In the final years of his reign, Henry was increasingly infirm and focused on securing peace within the kingdom and his own religious devotions.<ref>{{Harvnb|Jobson|2012|p=164}}; {{Harvnb|Howell|2001|pp=246–247}}</ref> Edward became the Steward of England and began to play a more prominent role in government.<ref>{{Harvnb|Jobson|2012|pp=164–165}}</ref> Henry's finances were in a precarious state as a result of the war, and when Edward decided to join the crusades in 1268 it became clear that fresh taxes were necessary.<ref name="Jobson 2012 162–163"/> Henry was concerned that Edward's absence might encourage further revolts but was swayed by his son to negotiate with multiple parliaments over the next two years to raise the money.<ref>{{Harvnb|Jobson|2012|p=164}}; {{Harvnb|Carpenter|2004|p=382}}; {{Harvnb|Howell|2001|pp=248–249}}</ref>

Although Henry had initially reversed Simon de Montfort's anti-Jewish policies, including attempting to restore the debts owed to Jews where these could be proven, he faced pressure from parliament to introduce restrictions on Jewish bonds, particularly their sale to Christians, in the final years of his reign in return for financing.<ref name=stacey2003p53huscroftp107>{{Harvnb|Stacey|2003|p=53}}; {{Harvnb|Huscroft|2006|pp=107–108}}</ref>{{Efn|Henry agreed to limits on fee-rents, restrictions on sale of Jewish loans to Christians and a prohibition on levying interest on loans purchased by Christians. These were the grievances that had helped fuel the wider crisis since 1239.<ref name=stacey2003p53huscroftp107/>}} Henry continued to invest in Westminster Abbey, which became a replacement for the Angevin mausoleum at [[Fontevraud Abbey]], and in 1269 he oversaw a grand ceremony to rebury Edward the Confessor in a lavish new shrine, personally helping to carry the body to its new resting place.<ref>{{Harvnb|Jobson|2012|p=165}}; {{Harvnb|Carpenter|2004|p=382}}; {{Harvnb|Howell|2001|p=247}}; {{Harvnb|Ridgeway|2004}}</ref>