Editing Gamal Abdel Nasser (section)

== Modernization efforts and internal dissent ==
[[File:Egyptian officials at al-Azhar, 1959.jpg|thumb|right|alt=Several men walking forward, side by side. There are five men in the forefront, all wearing suits and ties. In the background is an ornate building with two minarets and a dome.|Government officials attending [[Friday prayer]]s at [[al-Azhar Mosque]], 1959. From left to right; Interior Minister [[Zakaria Mohieddin]], Nasser, Social Affairs Minister [[Hussein el-Shafei]] and National Union Secretary [[Anwar Sadat]]]]

=== Al-Azhar ===
In 1961, Nasser sought to firmly establish Egypt as the leader of the Arab world and to promote a second revolution in Egypt with the purpose of merging Islamic and socialist thinking.<ref name="Aburish201">{{Harvnb|Aburish|2004|pp=200–201}}</ref> To achieve this, he initiated several reforms to modernize [[al-Azhar University|al-Azhar]], which serves as the ''de facto'' leading authority in [[Sunni Islam]], and to ensure its prominence over the Muslim Brotherhood and the more conservative [[Wahhabism]] promoted by Saudi Arabia.<ref name="Aburish201" /> Nasser had used al-Azhar's most willing ''[[ulema]]'' (scholars) as a counterweight to the Brotherhood's Islamic influence, starting in 1953.<ref name="Aburish46-7" />

Nasser instructed al-Azhar to create changes in its syllabus that trickled to the lower levels of Egyptian education, consequently allowing the establishment of coeducational schools and the introduction of [[evolution]] into school [[curriculum]]. The reforms also included the merger of [[sharia|religious]] and civil courts.<ref name="Aburish201" /> Moreover, Nasser forced al-Azhar to issue a [[fatwā]] admitting [[Shia Muslim]]s, [[Alawite]]s, and [[Druze]] into mainstream Islam; for centuries prior, al-Azhar deemed them to be "heretics".<ref name="Aburish201" />

=== Rivalry with Amer ===
Following Syria's secession, Nasser grew concerned with Amer's inability to train and modernize the army, and with the [[state within a state]] Amer had created in the military command and [[Egyptian General Intelligence Directorate|intelligence apparatus]].<ref name="Aburish237" /><ref>{{Harvnb|Kandil|2012|p=51}}</ref> In late 1961, Nasser established the Presidential Council and decreed it the authority to approve all senior military appointments, instead of leaving this responsibility solely to Amer.<ref name="Farid71">{{Harvnb|Farid|1996|p=71}}</ref><ref name="Brooks88">{{Harvnb|Brooks|2008|p=88}}</ref> Moreover, he instructed that the primary criterion for promotion should be merit and not personal loyalties.<ref name="Farid71" /> Nasser retracted the initiative after Amer's allies in the officers corps threatened to mobilize against him.<ref name="Brooks88" />

In early 1962 Nasser again attempted to wrest control of the military command from Amer.<ref name="Brooks88" /> Amer responded by directly confronting Nasser for the first time and secretly rallying his loyalist officers.<ref name="Farid71" /><ref name="Brooks89">{{Harvnb|Brooks|2008|p=89}}</ref> Nasser ultimately backed down, wary of a possible violent confrontation between the military and his civilian government.<ref>{{Harvnb|Farid|1996|pp=71–72}}</ref> According to Boghdadi, the stress caused by the UAR's collapse and Amer's increasing autonomy forced Nasser, who already had [[Diabetes mellitus|diabetes]], to practically live on painkillers from then on.<ref name="Aburish244">{{Harvnb|Aburish|2004|p=244}}</ref>

=== National Charter and second term ===
[[File:Nasser's Second Term.jpg|thumb|right|alt=To the left, a man in a suit and tie is standing at a podium in front of the Egyptian flag. To the right, a crowd of people watch, most of whom are men in suits. Some of the men are holding a camera.|Nasser being sworn in for a second term as Egypt's president, 25 March 1965]]

In October 1961, Nasser embarked on a major nationalization program for Egypt, believing the total adoption of socialism was the answer to his country's problems and would have prevented Syria's secession.<ref name="Aburish205">{{Harvnb|Aburish|2004|pp=205–206}}</ref> In order to organize and solidify his popular base with Egypt's citizens and counter the army's influence, Nasser introduced the National Charter in 1962 and a [[Egyptian Constitution of 1963|new constitution]].<ref name="Aburish237">{{Harvnb|Aburish|2004|pp=235–237}}</ref> The charter called for [[universal health care]], [[affordable housing]], [[vocational schools]], greater women's rights and a family planning program, as well as widening the Suez Canal.<ref name="Aburish237" />

Nasser also attempted to maintain oversight of the country's civil service to prevent it from inflating and consequently becoming a burden to the state.<ref name="Aburish237" /> New laws provided workers with a minimum wage, profit shares, free education, free health care, reduced working hours, and encouragement to participate in management. Land reforms guaranteed the security of tenant farmers,<ref>{{Harvnb|Stork|2001|pp=235–236}}</ref> promoted agricultural growth, and reduced rural poverty.<ref>{{Harvnb|Akram-Lodhi|Borras|Kay|2007|pp=258–259}}</ref> As a result of the 1962 measures, government ownership of Egyptian business reached 51&nbsp;percent,<ref>{{Harvnb|Abdelmalek|1968|pp=363–365}}</ref> and the National Union was renamed the [[Arab Socialist Union (Egypt)|Arab Socialist Union]] (ASU).<ref name="Aburish205" /> With these measures came more domestic repression, as thousands of [[Islamist]]s were imprisoned, including dozens of military officers.<ref name="Aburish205" /> Nasser's tilt toward a Soviet-style system led his aides Boghdadi and [[Hussein el-Shafei]] to submit their resignations in protest.<ref name="Aburish207">{{Harvnb|Aburish|2004|pp=207–208}}</ref>

During the presidential referendum in Egypt, Nasser was [[1965 United Arab Republic presidential confirmation referendum|re-elected]] to a second term as UAR president and took his oath on 25 March 1965. He was the only candidate for the position, with virtually all of his political opponents forbidden by law from running for office, and his fellow party members reduced to mere followers. That same year, Nasser had the Muslim Brotherhood chief ideologue Sayyed Qutb imprisoned.<ref name="Aburish239" /> Qutb was charged and found guilty by the court of plotting to assassinate Nasser, and was executed in 1966.<ref name="Aburish239">{{Harvnb|Aburish|2004|pp=238–239}}</ref> Beginning in 1966, as Egypt's economy slowed and government debt became increasingly burdensome, Nasser began to ease state control over the private sector, encouraging state-owned bank loans to private business and introducing incentives to increase exports.<ref>{{Harvnb|Cook|2011|p=123}}</ref> During the '60s, the Egyptian economy went from sluggishness to the verge of collapse, the society became less free, and Nasser's appeal waned considerably.<ref>{{Harvnb|Ferris|2013|p=2}}</ref>