Editing Frank Lloyd Wright (section)

==Personal style and concepts==
===Design elements===
[[File:Work area at the Johnson Wax Building, headquarters of the S.C. Johnson and Son Co., Racine, Wisconsin LCCN2011633764.jpg|thumb|An open office area in Wright's [[Johnson Wax Headquarters]] complex, Racine, Wisconsin (1939)]]
His Prairie houses use themed, coordinated design elements (often based on plant forms) that are repeated in windows, carpets, and other fittings. He made innovative use of new building materials such as [[precast concrete]] blocks, glass bricks, and zinc [[came]]s (instead of the traditional lead) for his leadlight windows, and he famously used [[Pyrex]] glass tubing as a major element in the [[Johnson Wax Headquarters]].{{Citation needed|date=January 2022}} Wright was also one of the first architects to design and install custom-made electric light fittings, including some of the first electric floor lamps, and his very early use of the then-novel spherical glass lampshade (a design previously not possible due to the physical restrictions of gas lighting).{{Citation needed|date=January 2022}} In 1897, Wright received a patent for "Prism Glass Tiles" that were used in storefronts to direct light toward the interior.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.dailyartmagazine.com/prismatic-tiles-frank-lloyd-wright-glass/|title=The Prismatic Glass Tiles of Frank Lloyd Wright|first=Anthony de|last=Feo|date=May 3, 2017|website=DailyArtMagazine.com – Art History Stories}}</ref> Wright fully embraced glass in his designs and found that it fit well into his philosophy of [[organic architecture]]. According to Wright's organic theory, all components of the building should appear unified, as though they belong together. Nothing should be attached to it without considering the effect on the whole. To unify the house to its site, Wright often used large expanses of glass to blur the boundary between the indoors and outdoors.<ref name="TMCnet">{{cite web|author=Lync Voice UC Industry News|title=The Textile Block System [Concrete International]|url=http://www.lyncvoiceuc.com/news/2012/04/14/6258593.htm|publisher=TMCnet|access-date=February 28, 2014|archive-date=March 5, 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140305203935/http://www.lyncvoiceuc.com/news/2012/04/14/6258593.htm|url-status=usurped}}</ref> Glass allowed for interaction and viewing of the outdoors while still protecting from the elements. In 1928, Wright wrote an essay on glass in which he compared it to the mirrors of nature: lakes, rivers and ponds.<ref>Frank Lloyd Wright. "In the Cause of Architecture, VI: The Meaning of Materials{{snd}}Glass". ''The Architectural Record'', 64(July 1928), 10–16.</ref> One of Wright's earliest uses of glass in his works was to string panes of glass along whole walls in an attempt to create light screens to join solid walls. By using this large amount of glass, Wright sought to achieve a balance between the lightness and airiness of the glass and the solid, hard walls. Arguably, Wright's best-known art glass is that of the Prairie style. The simple geometric shapes that yield to very ornate and intricate windows represent some of the most integral ornamentation of his career.<ref>{{cite book|last=Lind|first=Carla|title=Frank Lloyd Wright's glass designs|date=1995|publisher=Pomegranate Artbooks|location=San Francisco|isbn=978-0-87654-468-6|page=57}}</ref> Wright also designed some of his own clothing.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Gorman |first=Carma R. |date=1995 |title=Fitting Rooms: The Dress Designs of Frank Lloyd Wright |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/4618516 |journal=Winterthur Portfolio |volume=30 |issue=4 |pages=259–277 |doi=10.1086/wp.30.4.4618516 |jstor=4618516 |s2cid=163500254 |issn=0084-0416}}</ref>

===Influences and collaborations===
[[File:RobieHouseWindows ChicagoIL.jpg|thumb|Wright-designed window in [[Robie House]], Chicago (1906)]]
[[File:Marin Civic Center interior.jpg|thumb|Interior from the [[Marin County Civic Center]]. Designed toward the end of Wright's life, the expansive public project was built posthumously in the 1960s.]]
Wright, an individualist, did not affiliate with the [[American Institute of Architects]] during his career; he called the organization "a harbor of refuge for the incompetent" and "a form of refined gangsterism".<ref>{{Cite book |last=Wright |first=Frank Lloyd |url=https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/10825185 |title=The master architect : conversations with Frank Lloyd Wright |date=1984 |publisher=Wiley |others=Patrick Joseph Meehan |isbn=0-471-80025-2 |location=New York |oclc=10825185}}</ref> When an associate referred to him as "an old amateur" Wright confirmed, "I am the oldest."<ref name="archive">{{cite web|title=Biography in Sound: Frank Lloyd Wright|url=https://archive.org/details/Biography_in_Sound|work=Old Time Radio|access-date=September 9, 2012}}</ref> Wright rarely credited any influences on his designs, but most architects, historians and scholars agree he had five major influences:{{Citation needed|date=January 2022}}
# [[Louis Sullivan]], whom he considered to be his ''lieber Meister'' (dear master)
# Nature, particularly shapes/forms and colors/patterns of plant life
# Music (his favorite composer was [[Ludwig van Beethoven]])
# Japanese art, prints and buildings
# [[Froebel gifts]]<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Rubin|first=Jeanne S.|date=March 1, 1989|title=The Froebel-Wright Kindergarten Connection: A New Perspective|journal=Journal of the Society of Architectural Historians|volume=48|issue=1|pages=24–37|doi=10.2307/990404|issn=0037-9808|jstor=990404}}</ref>

Wright was given a set of Froebel gifts at about age nine, and in his autobiography he cited them indirectly in explaining that he learned the geometry of architecture in kindergarten play: {{blockquote|text=For several years I sat at the little kindergarten table-top ruled by lines about four inches apart each way making four-inch squares; and, among other things, played upon these 'unit-lines' with the square (cube), the circle (sphere) and the triangle (tetrahedron or tripod)—these were smooth maple-wood blocks. All are in my fingers to this day.<ref name="Alofsin">{{cite book| title=Frank Lloyd Wright—the Lost Years, 1910–1922: A Study of Influence| last=Alofsin| first=Anthony| publisher=[[University of Chicago Press]]| year=1993| isbn=0-226-01366-9}}</ref>{{rp|359}}}} Wright later wrote, "The virtue of all this lay in the awakening of the child-mind to rhythmic structures in Nature… I soon became susceptible to constructive pattern evolving in everything I saw."<ref name="Lange">{{cite book |last1=Lange |first1=Alexandra |title=The design of childhood : how the material world shapes independent kids|date=2018|publisher=Bloomsbury |isbn=978-1632866356}}</ref>{{rp|25}}<ref name="Hersey">{{cite book| title=Architecture and Geometry in the Age of the Baroque| last=Hersey| first=George| publisher=[[University of Chicago Press]]| year=2000| isbn=0-226-32783-3}}</ref>{{rp|205}}

He routinely claimed the work of architects and architectural designers who were his employees as his own designs, and believed that the rest of the Prairie School architects were merely his followers, imitators, and subordinates.<ref>Griffin, Marion Mahony, ''The Magic of America'', typescript, 1947</ref> As with any architect, though, Wright worked in a collaborative process and drew his ideas from the work of others. In his earlier days, Wright worked with some of the top architects of the [[Chicago School (architecture)|Chicago School]], including Sullivan. In his Prairie School days, Wright's office was populated by many talented architects, including [[William Eugene Drummond]], [[John Van Bergen]], [[Isabel Roberts]], Francis [[Barry Byrne]], [[Albert Chase McArthur|Albert McArthur]], [[Marion Mahony Griffin]], and [[Walter Burley Griffin]]. The Czech-born architect [[Antonin Raymond]] worked for Wright at Taliesin and led the construction of the Imperial Hotel in Tokyo. He subsequently stayed in Japan and opened his own practice. [[Rudolph Schindler (architect)|Rudolf Schindler]] also worked for Wright on the Imperial Hotel and his own work is often credited as influencing Wright's Usonian houses. Schindler's friend [[Richard Neutra]] also worked briefly for Wright. In the [[Taliesin (studio)|Taliesin]] days, Wright employed many architects and artists who later become notable, such as [[Aaron Green (architect)|Aaron Green]], [[John Lautner]], [[E. Fay Jones]], [[Henry Klumb]], [[William Bernoudy]], and [[Paolo Soleri]].

===Japanese art===
{{multiple image
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 | image1 = Unity Temple, 875 Lake Street, Oak Park, Cook County, IL HABS ILL,16-OAKPA,3- (sheet 4 of 7).tif
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 | footer =  Left — Floor plan for Unity Temple.<br />Right — An archetypal {{transliteration|ja|gongen-zukuri}} shrine.
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Wright was a passionate [[Japanophile]] — he once proclaimed Japan to be "the most romantic, artistic, nature-inspired country on earth."<ref name=Stipe>{{cite web |url=https://franklloydwright.org/frank-lloyd-wright-and-japan/ |title= Frank Lloyd Wright and Japan|last=Margo |first=Stipe |date=January 1, 2017 |publisher=Frank Lloyd Wright Foundation |access-date=March 5, 2023}}</ref> He was particularly interested in [[Ukiyo-e|{{transliteration|ja|ukiyo-e}}]] [[woodblock printing in Japan|woodblock prints]], to which he claimed he was "enslaved."<ref name=MeechPekarik>{{cite journal |last1=Meech-Pekarik |first1=Julia |date=Autumn 1982 |title=Frank Lloyd Wright and Japanese Prints |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/3258756 |journal=The Metropolitan Museum of Art Bulletin |volume=40 |issue=2 |pages=49–56 |doi=10.2307/3258756 |jstor=3258756 |access-date=March 5, 2023}}</ref> Wright spent much of his free time selling, collecting, and appreciating these prints. He held parties and other events centered around them, proclaiming their pedagogical value to his guests and students.<ref name=MeechPekarik /> Before arriving in Japan, his impressions of the nation were based almost entirely on them.<ref name=Stipe /><ref name=Hammer>{{cite web |url=https://hammer.ucla.edu/exhibitions/2005/wright-and-the-architecture-of-japanese-prints |title=Wright and the Architecture of Japanese Prints |last=Peter |first=Carolyn |date=2005 |website=Hammer Museum |publisher=University of California, Los Angeles |access-date=March 5, 2023 |quote=}}</ref>

Wright found particular inspiration in the [[Formalism (art)|formal aspects]] of Japanese art. He described {{transliteration|ja|ukiyo-e}} prints as "organic," because of their understated qualities, their harmony, and their ability to be appreciated on a purely aesthetic level.<ref name=Hammer /> Additionally, he cherished their free-form compositions, where elements of the scene would frequently breach in front of one another, and their lack of extraneous detail, which he called a "gospel of elimination."<ref name=Stipe /><ref name=NuteSmith>{{cite web |url=https://www.smithsonianmag.com/arts-culture/frank-lloyd-wrights-japanese-education-180963617/ |title=Frank Lloyd Wright Credited Japan for His All-American Aesthetic |last=Nute |first=Kevin |date=June 8, 2017 |website=Smithsonian Magazine |access-date=March 5, 2023}}</ref> His interpretation of [[Chashitsu|{{transliteration|ja|chashitsu}}]] ([[Japanese tea ceremony|tea ceremony]] venues), mediated by the ideas of [[Okakura Kakuzō]], was of an architecture that emphasized openness, the "vacant space between the roof and walls."<ref>{{cite journal |last=Greve|first=Anni|date=February 2013|title=Learning from Tokyo urbanism: The urban sanctuaries|url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0264275111001673|journal=Cities|volume=30|page=102|doi=10.1016/j.cities.2011.12.007|access-date=March 5, 2023}}</ref><ref group=lower-alpha>This quotation is not from Wright, but from Okakura, himself quoting [[Laozi]].</ref> Wright applied these principles on a large scale, and they became trademarks of his practice.

Wright's floor plans exhibit strong similarities to their presumed Japanese forebears. The open living spaces of his early homes were likely appropriated from the [[World's Columbian Exposition]]'s [[Garden of the Phoenix|Ho-O-Den Pavilion]], whose [[Fusuma|sliding-screen dividers]] were removed in preparation for the event.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Nute |first=Kevin |date=1994 |title=Frank Lloyd Wright and Japanese Architecture: A Study in Inspiration |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/1316114 |journal=Journal of Design History |volume=7 |issue=3 |pages=171–173 |doi=10.1093/jdh/7.3.169 |jstor=1316114 |access-date=March 5, 2023}}</ref> Likewise, [[Unity Temple]] follows a [[Ishi-no-ma-zukuri|{{transliteration|ja|gongen-zukuri}}]] layout, characteristic of [[Shinto shrine]]s and likely inspired by his 1905 visit to the [[Rinnō-ji]] temple complex,<ref>{{cite journal |last=Nute |first=Kevin |date=1994 |title=Frank Lloyd Wright and Japanese Architecture: A Study in Inspiration |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/1316114 |journal=Journal of Design History |volume=7 |issue=3 |pages=173–177 |doi=10.1093/jdh/7.3.169 |jstor=1316114 |access-date=March 5, 2023}}</ref> and the shape of many of his cantilevered towers, including the [[Johnson Wax Headquarters#Research Tower|Johnson Research Tower]], may have been inspired by [[Japanese pagoda]]s.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Nute |first=Kevin |date=1994 |title=Frank Lloyd Wright and Japanese Architecture: A Study in Inspiration |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/1316114 |journal=Journal of Design History |volume=7 |issue=3 |pages=178–180 |doi=10.1093/jdh/7.3.169 |jstor=1316114 |access-date=March 5, 2023}}</ref> Wright's ornamental flourishes, as seen in his leaded glass windows and lively [[architectural drawing]]s, demonstrate a technical indebtedness to {{transliteration|ja|ukiyo-e}}.<ref name=NuteSmith /> One modern commentator, discussing the [[Robie House]], suggests that such elements combined allow Wright's architecture to exhibit [[Iki (aesthetics)|{{transliteration|ja|iki}}]], a particularly Japanese aesthetic value marked by a subdued stylishness.<ref>{{cite thesis |last=Yamamoto |first=Yuji |date=May 14, 1999 |title=An Aesthetics of Everyday Life: Modernism and a Japanese popular aesthetic ideal, ''Iki'' |url=http://yuji.cosmoshouse.com/works/papers/index-e.htm |type=MA |page=33 |institution=University of Chicago |access-date=March 5, 2023}}</ref>

His ideas about the art of Japan appear to have drawn greatly from the activities of [[Ernest Fenollosa]], whose work he likely first encountered between 1890 and 1893.<ref name=NuteArch>{{cite journal |last=Nute |first=Kevin |date=1991 |title=Frank Lloyd Wright and Japanese Art: Fenollosa: The Missing Link |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/1568601 |journal=Architectural History |volume=34 |pages=227–228 |doi=10.2307/1568601 |jstor=1568601 |s2cid=192393300 |access-date=March 5, 2023}}</ref> Many of Fenollosa's ideas are quite similar to those of Wright: these include his view of architecture as a "mother art," his condemnation of the West's "separation of construction and decoration," and his identification of an "organic wholeness" within {{transliteration|ja|ukiyo-e}} prints.<ref name=NuteSmith /><ref name=NuteArch /> Also like Wright, Fenollosa perceived a "degeneracy" in Western architecture, with particular emphasis on [[Renaissance architecture]]; Wright himself admitted that Japanese prints helped to "vulgarize" the Renaissance for him.<ref name=NuteArch /> Wright's art criticism treatise, ''The Japanese Print: An Interpretation'', may be read as a straightforward expansion upon Fenollosa's ideas.<ref name=NuteSmith /><ref name=NuteArch />

Though Wright always acknowledged his indebtedness to Japanese art and architecture, he took offense to claims that he copied or adapted it. In his view, Japanese art simply validated his personal principles especially well, and as such it was not a source of special inspiration.<ref name=Hammer /> Responding to a claim by [[Charles Robert Ashbee]] that he was "trying to adapt Japanese forms to the United States," Wright said that such borrowing was "against [his] very religion."<ref>{{cite journal |last=Nute |first=Kevin |date=1994 |title=Frank Lloyd Wright and Japanese Architecture: A Study in Inspiration |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/1316114 |journal=Journal of Design History |volume=7 |issue=3 |pages=169–185 |doi=10.1093/jdh/7.3.169 |jstor=1316114 |access-date=March 5, 2023}}</ref> Nonetheless, his insistence did not stop others from observing the same throughout his life.

==== Art collecting and dealing ====
[[File:二代目市川門之助-Kabuki Actor Ichikawa Monnosuke II as Shinozuka in a Shibaraku (Stop Right There!) Scene MET DP132740.jpg|thumb|One of Wright's favorite prints, by [[Katsukawa Shunkō I]]. The [[Mon (emblem)|{{transliteration|ja|mon}}]] on the subject's sleeve is similar to a motif later used in the Imperial Hotel.<ref name=MeechPekarik />]]
Wright was also an active dealer in Japanese art, primarily {{transliteration|ja|ukiyo-e}}. He frequently served as both architect and art dealer to the same clients: he designed a home, then provided the art to fill it.<ref name="cotter">{{cite news |last=Cotter |first=Holland |date=April 6, 2001 |title=Seeking Japan's Prints, Out of Love and Need |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2001/04/06/arts/art-review-seeking-japan-s-prints-out-of-love-and-need.html |url-access=registration |newspaper=The New York Times}}</ref> For a time, Wright made more from selling art than from his work as an architect. He also kept a personal collection, which he used as a teaching aid with his apprentices in what were called "print parties";<ref name=MeechPekarik /><ref>Meech, Julia ''Frank Lloyd Wright and the Art of Japan: The Architect's Other Passion''. New York: Abrams, 2000.</ref> to better suit his taste, he sometimes modified these personal prints using colored pencils and crayons.<ref name=Hammer /> Wright owned prints from masters such as [[Okumura Masanobu]], [[Torii Kiyomasu I]], [[Katsukawa Shunshō]], [[Utagawa Toyoharu]], [[Utagawa Kunisada]], [[Katsushika Hokusai]], and [[Utagawa Hiroshige]];<ref name=Hammer /> he was especially fond of Hiroshige, whom he considered "the greatest artist in the world."<ref name=MeechPekarik />

Wright first traveled to Japan in 1905, where he bought hundreds of prints. The following year, he helped organize the world's first retrospective exhibition on Hiroshige, held at the [[Art Institute of Chicago]],<ref name=cotter/> a job that strengthened his reputation as an expert in Japanese art.<ref name=Hammer /> Wright continued buying prints in his return trips to Japan<ref name=Hammer /> and for many years he was a major presence in the art world, selling a great number of works both to prominent private collectors<ref name=cotter/> and to museums such as the [[Metropolitan Museum of Art]].<ref name=reif/> In sum, Wright spent more than $500,000 on prints between 1905 and 1923.<ref name=MeechPekarik2>{{cite journal |last1=Meech-Pekarik |first1=Julia |date=Autumn 1982 |title=Frank Lloyd Wright and Japanese Prints |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/3258756 |journal=The Metropolitan Museum of Art Bulletin |volume=40 |issue=2 |page=56 |doi=10.2307/3258756 |jstor=3258756 |access-date=March 5, 2023}}</ref> He penned a book on Japanese art, ''The Japanese Print: An Interpretation'', in 1912.<ref name=Stipe /><ref name=reif/>

In 1920, many of the prints Wright sold had been found to exhibit signs of retouching, including pinholes and unoriginal pigments.<ref name=Hammer /><ref name=MeechPekarik2 /> These retouched prints were likely made in retribution by some of his Japanese dealers, who were disgruntled by the architect's under-the-table sales.<ref name=Hammer /> In an attempt to clear his name, Wright took one of his dealers, Kyūgo Hayashi, to court over the issue; Hayashi was subsequently sentenced to one year in prison, and barred from selling prints for an extended period of time.<ref name=Hammer />

Though Wright protested his innocence, and provided his clients with genuine prints as replacements for those he was accused of retouching, the incident marked the end of the high point of his career as an art dealer.<ref name=reif/> He was forced to sell off much of his art collection to pay off outstanding debts: in 1928, the Bank of Wisconsin claimed Taliesin and sold thousands of his prints — for only one dollar a piece — to collector [[Edward Burr Van Vleck]].<ref name=cotter/> Nonetheless, Wright continued to collect and deal in prints until his death in 1959, using them as bartering chips and collateral for loans; he often relied upon his art business to remain financially solvent.<ref name=reif>{{cite news |last=Reif |first=Rita |title=Art/Architecture; The Master Builder Whose Other Love Helped Pay the Bills |newspaper=The New York Times |date=March 18, 2001 |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2001/03/18/arts/art-architecture-the-master-builder-whose-other-love-helped-pay-the-bills.html |url-access=subscription |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231020141304/https://www.nytimes.com/2001/03/18/arts/art-architecture-the-master-builder-whose-other-love-helped-pay-the-bills.html |archive-date= October 20, 2023 }}</ref> He once claimed that Taliesin I and II were "practically built" by his prints.<ref name=MeechPekarik2 />

The extent of his dealings in Japanese art went largely unknown, or underestimated, among art historians for decades. In 1980, Julia Meech, then associate curator of Japanese art at the Metropolitan Museum, began researching the history of the museum's collection of Japanese prints. She discovered "a three-inch-deep 'clump of 400 cards' from 1918, each listing a print bought from the same seller — 'F. L. Wright'" — and a number of letters exchanged between Wright and the museum's first curator of Far Eastern Art, Sigisbert C. Bosch Reitz. These discoveries and subsequent research led to a renewed understanding of Wright's career as an art dealer.<ref name=reif/>

===Community planning===
Frank Lloyd Wright's commissions and theories on urban design began as early as 1900 and continued until his death. He had 41 commissions on the scale of community planning or urban design.<ref>Charles E. and Berdeana Aguar, ''Wrightscapes: Frank Lloyd Wright's Landscape Designs'', McGraw-Hill, 2002, p. 344.</ref>

His thoughts on suburban design started in 1900 with a proposed subdivision layout for [[Charles E. Roberts]] entitled the "Quadruple Block Plan". This design strayed from traditional suburban lot layouts and set houses on small square blocks of four equal-sized lots surrounded on all sides by roads instead of straight rows of houses on parallel streets. The houses, which used the same design as published in "A Home in a Prairie Town" from the ''Ladies' Home Journal'', were set toward the center of the block to maximize the yard space and included private space in the center. This also allowed for far more interesting views from each house. Although this plan was never realized, Wright published the design in the ''Wasmuth Portfolio'' in 1910.<ref>{{cite book |title=Wrightscapes: Frank Lloyd Wright's Landscape Designs |first1=Charles E. |last1=Aguar |first2=Berdeana |last2=Aguar |publisher=McGraw-Hill |date=2002 |pages=51–56}}</ref>

The more ambitious designs of entire communities were exemplified by his entry into the City Club of Chicago Land Development Competition in 1913. The contest was for the development of a suburban quarter section. This design expanded on the Quadruple Block Plan and included several social levels. The design shows the placement of the upscale homes in the most desirable areas and the [[blue collar]] homes and apartments separated by parks and common spaces. The design also included all the amenities of a small city: schools, museums, markets, etc.<ref>{{cite journal |title=Undoing the City: Frank Lloyd Wright's Planned Communities |journal=American Quarterly |volume=24 |issue=4 |date=October 1972 |page=544}}</ref> This view of decentralization was later reinforced by theoretical [[Broadacre City]] design. The philosophy behind his community planning was decentralization. The new development must be away from the cities. In this decentralized America, all services and facilities could coexist "factories side by side with farm and home".<ref>{{cite journal |title=Undoing the City: Frank Lloyd Wright's Planned Communities |journal=American Quarterly |volume=24 |issue=4 |date=October 1972 |page=542}}</ref>

Notable community planning designs:
* 1900–03 – Quadruple Block Plan, 24 homes in Oak Park, Illinois (unbuilt);
* 1909 – [[Como Orchard Summer Colony]], town site development for new town in the [[Bitterroot Valley]], Montana;
* 1913 – Chicago Land Development competition, suburban Chicago quarter section;
* 1934–59 – [[Broadacre City]], theoretical decentralized city plan, exhibits of large-scale model;
* 1938 – [[Suntop Homes]], also known as Cloverleaf Quadruple Housing Project – commission from [[Federal Works Agency]], Division of Defense Housing, a low-cost multifamily housing alternative to suburban development;
* 1942 – Cooperative Homesteads, commissioned by a group of auto workers, teachers and other professionals, 160-acre farm co-op was to be the pioneer of [[rammed earth]] and earth berm construction<ref>''Treasures of Taliesin: Seventy Seven Unbuilt Designs'', Bruce Brooks Pfeiffer, Director of the Frank Lloyd Wright Archive.</ref> (unbuilt);
* 1945 – [[Usonia Homes]], 47 homes (three designed by Wright) in [[Pleasantville, New York]]; 
* 1949 – [[Parkwyn Village]], a [[plat]] in Kalamazoo, Michigan, developed by Wright containing mostly Usonian houses by other architects with four by Wright. The community was planned to be on circular lots but was re-platted and squared off.  
* 1949 – [[The Acres]], also known as Galesburg Country Homes, with five houses (four designed by Wright) in [[Charleston Township, Michigan]]; The Acres remains the sole example of a planned community that has not had its circular lots squared off or been sub-divided.