Editing Ethics (section)

=== Bioethics ===
{{main|Bioethics}}
Bioethics covers moral problems associated with [[Life|living organisms]] and [[biological]] disciplines.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Dittmer|loc=§ 3. Bioethics}} | {{harvnb|Gordon, "''Bioethics''"|ref=Gordon, "''Bioethics''"|loc=Lead section}} | {{harvnb|Gillon|1998|pp=267–268}} }}</ref> A key problem in bioethics is how features such as [[consciousness]], being able to feel pleasure and pain, [[rationality]], and personhood affect the moral status of entities. These differences concern, for example, how to treat non-living entities like rocks and non-sentient entities like plants in contrast to animals, and whether humans have a different moral status than other animals.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Gordon, "''Bioethics''"|ref=Gordon, "''Bioethics''"|loc=Lead section, § 4. The Idea of Moral Status in Bioethics}} | {{harvnb|Dittmer|loc=§ 4a. Theories of Moral Standing and Personhood}} }}</ref> According to [[anthropocentrism]], only humans have a basic moral status. This suggests that all other entities possess a derivative moral status only insofar as they impact human life. [[Sentientism]], by contrast, extends an inherent moral status to all sentient beings. Further positions include [[Biocentrism (ethics)|biocentrism]], which also covers non-sentient lifeforms, and [[ecocentrism]], which states that all of nature has a basic moral status.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Holmes|2018|pp=288–289}} | {{harvnb|Gordon, "''Bioethics''"|ref=Gordon, "''Bioethics''"|loc=§ 3d. Environmental Ethics}} }}</ref>

Bioethics is relevant to various aspects of life and many professions. It covers a wide range of moral problems associated with topics like [[abortion]], [[cloning]], [[stem cell research]], [[euthanasia]], [[suicide]], [[animal testing]], [[intensive animal farming]], [[nuclear waste]], and [[air pollution]].<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Dittmer|loc=§ 3. Bioethics}} | {{harvnb|Gordon, "''Bioethics''"|ref=Gordon, "''Bioethics''"|loc=Lead section, § 1. Preliminary Distinctions}} }}</ref>

Bioethics can be divided into [[medical ethics]], [[animal ethics]], and [[environmental ethics]] based on whether the ethical problems relate to humans, other animals, or nature in general.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Gordon, "''Bioethics''"|ref=Gordon, "''Bioethics''"|loc=Lead section, § 3a. Introduction}} | {{harvnb|Peppard|2005|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=qFBgL8b4_JgC&pg=PR18 xviii]}} | {{harvnb|Frey|1998|loc=Lead section}} }}</ref> Medical ethics is the oldest branch of bioethics. The [[Hippocratic Oath]] is one of the earliest texts to engage in medical ethics by establishing ethical guidelines for medical practitioners like a [[Medical ethics#Non-maleficence|prohibition to harm the patient]].<ref name="ReferenceC">{{harvnb|Gordon, "''Bioethics''"|ref=Gordon, "''Bioethics''"|loc=Lead section, § 3b. Medical Ethics}}</ref> Medical ethics often addresses issues related to the start and end of life. It examines the moral status of fetuses, for example, whether they are full-fledged persons and whether abortion is a form of [[murder]].<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Dittmer|loc=§ 3. Bioethics}} | {{harvnb|Gordon, "''Bioethics''"|ref=Gordon, "''Bioethics''"|loc=Lead section, § 3b. Medical Ethics}} }}</ref> Ethical issues also arise about whether a person has the right to end their life in cases of terminal illness or chronic suffering and if [[Assisted suicide|doctors may help them do so]].<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Dittmer|loc=§ 3. Bioethics}} | {{harvnb|Delden|1998|pp=200–201}} }}</ref> Other topics in medical ethics include [[medical confidentiality]], [[informed consent]], research on human beings, [[organ transplantation]], and access to [[healthcare]].<ref name="ReferenceC"/>

[[File:Battery hens -Bastos, Sao Paulo, Brazil-31March2007.jpg|thumb|upright=0.8|alt=Photo of battery hens in Brazil|Harm done to animals is a particular concern in animal ethics, for example, as a result of [[intensive animal farming]].]]

Animal ethics examines how humans should treat other animals. This field often emphasizes the importance of [[animal welfare]] while arguing that humans should avoid or minimize the harm done to animals. There is wide agreement that it is wrong to [[Cruelty to animals|torture animals]] for fun. The situation is more complicated in cases where harm is inflicted on animals as a side effect of the pursuit of human interests. This happens, for example, during factory farming, when using animals as food, and for research experiments on animals.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Wilson|loc=Lead section}} | {{harvnb|Gordon, "''Bioethics''"|ref=Gordon, "''Bioethics''"|loc=Lead section, § 3c. Animal Ethics}} | {{harvnb|Holmes|2018|pp=317–319}} }}</ref> A key topic in animal ethics is the formulation of [[animal rights]]. Animal rights theorists assert that animals have a certain moral status and that humans should respect this status when interacting with them.<ref>{{harvnb|Holmes|2018|pp=333–334}}</ref> Examples of suggested animal rights include the right to life, the right to be free from unnecessary suffering, and the right to natural behavior in a suitable environment.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Francione|2004|pp=[https://books.google.com/books?id=ocbdJD2oUW0C&pg=PA115 115–116]}} | {{harvnb|Yount|2007|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=R4jQ_upQZroC&pg=PA26 26]}} }}</ref>

Environmental ethics deals with moral problems relating to the natural environment including animals, plants, [[natural resource]]s, and [[ecosystem]]s. In its widest sense, it covers the whole [[cosmos]].<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Gordon, "''Bioethics''"|ref=Gordon, "''Bioethics''"|loc=§ 3d. Environmental Ethics}} | {{harvnb|Sandler|1998|pp=105–106}} | {{harvnb|Brennan|Lo|2022|loc=Lead section}} }}</ref> In the domain of [[agriculture]], this concerns the circumstances under which the vegetation of an area may be cleared to use it for farming and the implications of planting [[genetically modified crops]].<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Brennan|Lo|2022|loc=§ 1. Introduction: The Challenge of Environmental Ethics}} | {{harvnb|Gordon, "''Bioethics''"|ref=Gordon, "''Bioethics''"|loc=§ 3d. Environmental Ethics}} }}</ref> On a wider scale, environmental ethics addresses the problem of [[global warming]] and people's responsibility on the individual and [[Collective responsibility|collective levels]], including topics like [[climate justice]] and duties towards future generations. Environmental ethicists often promote [[Sustainability|sustainable practices]] and policies directed at protecting and conserving ecosystems and [[biodiversity]].<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Gordon, "''Bioethics''"|ref=Gordon, "''Bioethics''"|loc=§ 1. Preliminary Distinctions, § 3d. Environmental Ethics}} | {{harvnb|Cochrane|loc=§ 2. Radical Ecology}} | {{harvnb|Smith|2018|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=LFBVDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA36 36]}} | {{harvnb|Roser|Seidel|2016|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=gislDwAAQBAJ&pg=PR1 i]}} }}</ref>