Editing Emotion (section)

=== Cognitive theories ===
With the two-factor theory now incorporating cognition, several theories began to argue that cognitive activity in the form of judgments, evaluations, or thoughts were entirely necessary for an emotion to occur.

Cognitive theories of emotion emphasize that emotions are shaped by how individuals interpret and appraise situations. These theories highlight:

# The role of [[cognitive appraisal]]s in evaluating the significance of events.
# The subjectivity of emotions and the influence of individual differences.
# The cognitive labeling of emotional experiences.
# The complexity of emotional responses, influenced by cognitive processes, physiological reactions, and situational factors.

These theories acknowledge that emotions are not automatic reactions but result from the interplay of cognitive interpretations, physiological responses, and the social context. A prominent philosophical exponent is [[Robert C. Solomon]] (for example, ''The Passions, Emotions and the Meaning of Life'', 1993<ref>{{cite book |last=Solomon |first=Robert C. |url=https://archive.org/details/passions00robe |title=The Passions: Emotions and the Meaning of Life |publisher=Hackett Publishing |year=1993 |isbn=0872202267 |location=Indianapolis |url-access=registration}}</ref>). Solomon claims that emotions are judgments. He has put forward a more nuanced view which responds to what he has called the 'standard objection' to cognitivism, the idea that a judgment that something is fearsome can occur with or without emotion, so judgment cannot be identified with emotion.

==== Cognitive Appraisal Theory ====
One of the main proponents of this view was [[Richard Lazarus]] who argued that emotions must have some cognitive [[intentionality]]. The cognitive activity involved in the interpretation of an emotional context may be conscious or unconscious and may or may not take the form of conceptual processing.

Lazarus' theory is very influential; emotion is a disturbance that occurs in the following order:
# '''Cognitive appraisal''': The individual assesses the event cognitively, which cues the emotion.
# '''Physiological changes''': The cognitive reaction starts biological changes such as increased heart rate or pituitary adrenal response.
# '''Action''': The individual feels the emotion and chooses how to react.

For example: Jenny sees a snake.
# Jenny cognitively assesses the snake in her presence. Cognition allows her to understand it as a danger.
# Her brain activates the adrenal glands which pump adrenalin through her blood stream, resulting in increased heartbeat.
# Jenny screams and runs away.

Lazarus stressed that the quality and intensity of emotions are controlled through cognitive processes. These processes underline [[coping strategies]] that form the emotional reaction by altering the relationship between the person and the environment.{{Citation needed|date=April 2025}}

==== Two-Process Theory ====
[[George Mandler]] provided an extensive theoretical and empirical discussion of emotion as influenced by cognition, consciousness, and the autonomic nervous system in two books (''Mind and Emotion'', 1975,<ref>{{cite book|last=Mandler|first=George|title=Mind and Emotion|year=1975|publisher=R.E. Krieger Publishing Company|location=Malabar|isbn=978-0898743500}}</ref> and ''Mind and Body: Psychology of Emotion and Stress'', 1984<ref>{{cite book|last=Mandler|first=George|title=Mind and Body: Psychology of Emotion and Stress|year=1984|publisher=W.W. Norton|location=New York|oclc=797330039}}</ref>)

George Mandler, a prominent psychologist known for his contributions to the study of cognition and emotion, proposed the "Two-Process Theory of Emotion". This theory offers insights into how emotions are generated and how cognitive processes play a role in emotional experiences. Mandler's theory focuses on the interplay between primary and secondary appraisal processes in the formation of emotions. Here are the key components of his theory:

# '''Primary Appraisal''': This initial cognitive appraisal involves evaluating a situation for its relevance and implications for one's well-being. It assesses whether a situation is beneficial, harmful, or neutral. A positive primary appraisal may lead to positive emotions, while a negative primary appraisal may lead to negative emotions.
# '''Secondary Appraisal''': Secondary appraisal follows the primary appraisal and involves an assessment of one's ability to cope with or manage the situation. If an individual believes they have the resources and skills to cope effectively, this may result in a different emotional response than if they perceive themselves as unable to cope.
# '''Emotion Generation''': The combination of the primary and secondary appraisals contributes to the generation of emotions. The specific emotion experienced is determined by these appraisals. For instance, if a person appraises a situation as relevant to their well-being (positive or negative) and believes they have the resources to cope, this might lead to an emotion such as joy or relief. Conversely, if the situation is appraised negatively, and coping resources are perceived as lacking, emotions like fear or sadness may result.

Mandler's Two-Process Theory of Emotion emphasizes the importance of cognitive appraisal processes in shaping emotional experiences. It recognizes that emotions are not just automatic reactions but result from complex evaluations of the significance of situations and one's ability to manage them effectively. This theory underscores the role of cognition in the emotional process and highlights the interplay of cognitive factors in the formation of emotions.

==== The [[Affect infusion model|Affect Infusion Model]] (AIM) ====
The Affect Infusion Model (AIM) is a psychological framework that was developed by Joseph Forgas in the 1990s. This model focuses on how affect, or mood and emotions, can influence cognitive processes and decision-making. The central idea of the AIM is that affect, whether it is a positive or negative mood, can "infuse" or influence various cognitive activities, including information processing and judgments.

Key components and principles of the Affect Infusion Model include:

# '''Affect as Information''': The AIM posits that individuals use their current mood or emotional state as a source of information when making judgments or decisions. In other words, people consider their emotional experiences as part of the decision-making process.
# '''Information Processing Strategies''': The model suggests that affect can influence the strategies people use to process information. Positive affect might lead to a more heuristic or "top-down" processing style, whereas negative affect might lead to a more systematic, detail-oriented "bottom-up" processing style.
# '''Affect Congruence''': The AIM suggests that when the affective state is congruent with the information being processed, it can enhance processing efficiency and lead to more favorable judgments. For example, a positive mood might lead to more positive evaluations of positive information.
# '''Affect Infusion''': The concept of "affect infusion" refers to the idea that affect can "infuse" or bias cognitive processes, potentially leading to decision-making that is influenced by emotional factors.
# '''Moderating Factors''': The model acknowledges that various factors, such as individual differences, task complexity, and the extent of attention paid to one's mood, can moderate the degree to which affect influences cognition.

The Affect Infusion Model has been applied to a wide range of areas, including consumer behavior, social judgment, and interpersonal interactions. It emphasizes the idea that emotions and mood play a more significant role in cognitive processes and decision-making than traditionally thought. While it has been influential in understanding the interplay between affect and cognition, it is important to note that the AIM is just one of several models in the field of emotion and cognition that help explain the intricate relationship between emotions and thinking.{{Citation needed|date=April 2025}}

==== Appraisal-Tendency Theory ====
The Appraisal-Tendency Theory,<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Lerner |first1=Jennifer S. |last2=Han |first2=Seunghee |last3=Keltner |first3=Dacher |date=July 2007 |title=Feelings and Consumer Decision Making: Extending the Appraisal-Tendency Framework |url=https://myscp.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1016/S1057-7408%2807%2970027-X |journal=Journal of Consumer Psychology |language=en |volume=17 |issue=3 |pages=181–187 |doi=10.1016/S1057-7408(07)70027-X |issn=1057-7408}}</ref> developed by Joseph P. Forgas, is a theory that focuses on how people have dispositional tendencies to appraise and interpret situations in specific ways, leading to consistent emotional reactions to particular types of situations. This theory suggests that certain individuals may have stable, habitual patterns of appraising and attributing emotional significance to events, and these tendencies can influence their emotional responses and judgments.

Key features and concepts of the Appraisal-Tendency Theory include:

# '''Cognitive Appraisals''': Appraisal tendencies refer to the habitual or characteristic ways that individuals appraise or evaluate situations. Appraisals involve cognitive judgments about the personal relevance, desirability, and significance of events or situations.
# '''Stable and Individual Differences''': The theory posits that these appraisal tendencies are stable and relatively consistent across time. They are also seen as individual differences, meaning that people may differ in the specific appraisal tendencies they exhibit.
# '''Emotional Responses''': Appraisal tendencies influence emotional responses to situations. For instance, individuals with a tendency to appraise situations as threatening may consistently experience fear or anxiety in response to a range of situations perceived as threats.
# '''Influence on Social Judgments''': The theory extends beyond emotions to include the impact of appraisal tendencies on social judgments and evaluations. For example, individuals with a tendency to perceive events as unfair may make consistent social judgments related to fairness and justice.
# '''Context Dependence''': Appraisal tendencies may interact with situational factors. In some situations, the tendency to appraise a situation as threatening, for instance, may lead to fear, while in different contexts, it may not produce the same emotional response.

Appraisal-Tendency Theory suggests that these cognitive tendencies can shape an individual's overall emotional disposition, influencing their emotional reactions and social judgments. This theory has been applied in various contexts, including studies of personality, social psychology, and decision-making, to better understand how cognitive appraisal tendencies influence emotional and evaluative responses.

==== Laws of Emotion ====
[[Nico Frijda]] was a prominent psychologist known for his work in the field of emotion and affective science. One of the key contributions of Frijda are his "Laws of Emotion",<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Haviland-Jones |first1=Jeannette M. |title=Handbook of emotions |last2=Lewis |first2=Michael |last3=Barrett |first3=Lisa Feldman |date=2016 |publisher=Guilford press |isbn=978-1-4625-2534-8 |edition=4 |location=New York (N.Y.)}}</ref> which outline a set of principles that help explain how emotions function and how they are experienced. Frijda's Laws of Emotion are as follows:

# '''The Law of Situational Meaning''': This law posits that emotions are elicited by events or situations that have personal significance and meaning for the individual. Emotions are not random but are a response to the perceived meaning of the situation.
# '''The Law of Concern''': Frijda suggests that emotions are fundamentally concerned with the individual's well-being and adaptation. Emotions serve as signals or reactions to situations that impact one's goals, needs, or values.
# '''The Law of Appraisal''': This law acknowledges the role of cognitive appraisal processes in the emotional experience. Individuals appraise or evaluate a situation based on factors such as its relevance, congruence with goals, and coping potential, which in turn shapes the specific emotional response.
# '''The Law of Readiness''': Frijda's theory suggests that emotions prepare individuals for action. Emotions are associated with physiological changes and action tendencies that ready the individual to respond to the situation. For example, fear may prepare someone to escape a threat.
# '''The Law of Concerned Expectancy''': Emotions are influenced by both what is happening now and what is anticipated to occur in the future. Emotions can reflect an individual's expectations about the consequences of a situation.

Frijda's theory emphasizes the adaptive function of emotions and the role of cognitive appraisal in shaping emotional experiences. It highlights that emotions are not simply reactions to external events but are intimately tied to the individual's goals, values, and perceptions of the situation's meaning. Frijda's work has had a significant influence on the study of emotions and has contributed to a more comprehensive understanding of how emotions operate.