Editing Educational psychology (section)

===Cognitive===
Among current educational psychologists, the cognitive perspective is more widely held than the behavioral perspective, perhaps because it admits causally related mental constructs such as [[trait theory|traits]], [[beliefs]], [[memories]], [[motivation]]s, and [[emotion]]s.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Crocker|first1=Laura D.|last2=Heller|first2=Wendy|last3=Warren|first3=Stacie L.|last4=O'Hare|first4=Aminda J.|last5=Infantolino|first5=Zachary P.|last6=Miller|first6=Gregory A.|date=2013-06-11|title=Relationships among cognition, emotion, and motivation: implications for intervention and neuroplasticity in psychopathology|journal=Frontiers in Human Neuroscience|volume=7|pages=261|doi=10.3389/fnhum.2013.00261|issn=1662-5161|pmc=3678097|pmid=23781184|doi-access=free}}</ref> Cognitive theories claim that memory structures determine how information is [[perceive]]d, [[Information processing (psychology)|processed]], stored, [[information retrieval|retrieved]] and [[forgot]]ten. Among the memory structures theorized by cognitive psychologists are separate but linked visual and verbal systems described by [[Allan Paivio]]'s [[dual coding theory]]. Educational psychologists have used [[Dual-coding theory|dual coding theory]] and [[cognitive load]] theory to explain how people learn from [[multimedia]] presentations.<ref name=Mayer>[[Richard E. Mayer|Mayer, R.E.]] (2001). ''Multimedia learning''. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.</ref>

[[Image:KrugDavisGlover1990.png|right|thumb|Three experiments reported by Krug, Davis and Glover<ref name=krug>Krug, D.; Davis, T.B.; Glover, J.A. (1990). Massed versus distributed repeated reading: A case of forgetting helping recall? ''Journal of Educational Psychology'', 82, 366–71.</ref> demonstrated the advantage of delaying a 2nd reading of a text passage by one week (distributed) compared with no delay between readings (massed).]]
The [[spaced learning]] effect, a [[cognitive]] phenomenon strongly supported by psychological research, has broad applicability within [[education]].<ref name=dempster>Dempster, F.N. (1989). Spacing effects and their implications for theory and practice. ''[[Educational Psychology Review]]'', 1, 309–30.</ref> For example, students have been found to perform better on a test of knowledge about a text passage when a second reading of the passage is delayed rather than immediate (see figure).<ref name=krug/> Educational psychology research has confirmed the applicability to the education of other findings from cognitive psychology, such as the benefits of using [[mnemonic]]s for immediate and delayed retention of information.<ref name=carney>Carney, R.N. & Levin, J.R. (2000). Fading mnemonic memories: Here's looking anew, again! ''[[Contemporary Educational Psychology]]'', 25, 499–508.</ref>

[[Problem solving]], according to prominent cognitive psychologists, is fundamental to [[learning]]. It resides as an important research topic in educational psychology. A student is thought to interpret a problem by assigning it to a [[schema (psychology)|schema]] retrieved from [[long-term memory]]. A problem students run into while reading is called "activation." This is when the student's representations of the text are present during [[working memory]]. This causes the student to read through the material without absorbing the information and being able to retain it. When working memory is absent from the reader's representations of the working memory, they experience something called "deactivation." When deactivation occurs, the student has an understanding of the material and is able to retain information. If deactivation occurs during the first reading, the reader does not need to undergo deactivation in the second reading. The reader will only need to reread to get a "gist" of the text to spark their [[memory]]. When the problem is assigned to the wrong schema, the student's attention is subsequently directed away from features of the problem that are inconsistent with the assigned schema.<ref name=kalyuga>Kalyuga, S.; Chandler, P.; Tuovinen, J. & [[John Sweller|Sweller, J.]] (2001). When problem-solving is superior to studying worked examples. ''Journal of Educational Psychology'', 93, 579–88.</ref> The critical step of finding a mapping between the problem and a pre-existing schema is often cited as supporting the centrality of [[analogical]] thinking to problem-solving.

====Cognitive view of intelligence====
[[File:Figural Relationships.svg|right|thumb|An example of an item from a cognitive abilities test]]
Each person has an individual profile of characteristics, abilities, and challenges that result from predisposition, learning, and development. These manifest as individual differences in [[intelligence (trait)|intelligence]], [[creativity]], [[cognitive style]], [[motivation]], and the capacity to process information, communicate, and relate to others. The most prevalent disabilities found among school age children are [[attention deficit hyperactivity disorder]] (ADHD), [[learning disability]], [[dyslexia]], and [[speech disorder]]. Less common disabilities include [[intellectual disability]], [[hearing impairment]], [[cerebral palsy]], [[epilepsy]], and [[blindness]].<ref name=woolfolk/>

Although theories of [[intelligence]] have been discussed by philosophers since [[Plato]], [[intelligence testing]] is an invention of educational psychology and is coincident with the development of that discipline. Continuing debates about the nature of intelligence revolve on whether it can be characterized by a single [[factor analysis|factor]] known as [[general intelligence factor|general intelligence]],<ref name=spearman1904>Spearman, C. (1904) "General intelligence" objectively determined and measured. ''American Journal of Psychology'', 15, 201–93.</ref> multiple factors (e.g., [[Howard Gardner|Gardner's]] [[theory of multiple intelligences]]<ref>Gardner, Howard. (1983) ''Frames of Mind: The Theory of Multiple Intelligences''. New York: Basic Books.</ref>), or whether it can be measured at all. In practice, standardized instruments such as the [[Stanford-Binet IQ test]] and the [[Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children|WISC]]<ref>Wechsler, D. (1949). ''The Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children.'' New York: Psychological Corp.</ref> are widely used in economically developed countries to identify children in need of individualized educational treatment. Children classified as [[gifted]] are often provided with accelerated or enriched programs. Children with identified deficits may be provided with enhanced education in specific skills such as [[phonological awareness]]. In addition to basic abilities, the individual's personality [[trait theory|traits]] are also important, with people higher in [[conscientiousness]] and [[hope]] attaining superior academic achievements, even after controlling for intelligence and past performance.<ref>Day, L.; Hanson, K.; Maltby, J.; Proctor, C.L. & Wood, A.M. (in press). [https://web.archive.org/web/20110928104551/http://personalpages.manchester.ac.uk/staff/alex.wood/hope_education.pdf Hope uniquely predicts objective academic achievement above intelligence, personality, and previous academic achievement.] ''Journal of Research in Personality''.</ref>