Editing Coyote (section)

===Enemies and competitors===
[[File:USFWS - How to recognise a gray wolf 1.png|thumb|A comparative illustration of a coyote and a [[gray wolf]]]]
[[File:Feeling Unwelcome.jpg|thumb|Mountain coyotes (''C. l. lestes'') cornering a juvenile [[cougar]]]]
In areas where the ranges of coyotes and gray wolves overlap, interference competition and predation by wolves has been hypothesized to limit local coyote densities. Coyote ranges expanded during the 19th and 20th centuries following the extirpation of wolves, while coyotes were driven to extinction on [[Isle Royale]] after wolves colonized the island in the 1940s. One study conducted in [[Yellowstone National Park]], where both species coexist, concluded that the coyote population in the [[Lamar River|Lamar River Valley]] declined by 39% following the reintroduction of wolves in the 1990s, while coyote populations in wolf inhabited areas of the [[Grand Teton National Park]] are 33% lower than in areas where they are absent.<ref name="berger2007">{{cite journal|author1=Berger, K. M.|author2=Gese, E. M.|year=2007|title=Does interference competition with wolves limit the distribution and abundance of coyotes?|journal=Journal of Animal Ecology|volume=76|issue=6|pages=1075–1085|pmid=17922704|doi=10.1111/j.1365-2656.2007.01287.x|doi-access=free|bibcode=2007JAnEc..76.1075B }}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last= Stains|first=H. J. |year=1974|chapter=Distribution and Taxonomy of the Canidae|pages=3–26|editor-first=M. W. |editor-last=Fox|title=The Wild Canids: Their Systematics, Behavioral Ecology, and Evolution|location=New York |publisher=Van Nostrand Reinhold|isbn=978-0-442-22430-1|oclc=1093505}}</ref> Wolves have been observed to not tolerate coyotes in their vicinity, though coyotes have been known to trail wolves to feed on their kills.<ref name="young93">{{Harvnb|Young|Jackson|1978|pp=93–96}}</ref>

Coyotes may compete with [[cougar]]s in some areas. In the eastern [[Sierra Nevada]], coyotes compete with cougars over [[mule deer]]. Cougars normally outcompete and dominate coyotes, and may kill them occasionally, thus reducing coyote predation pressure on smaller carnivores such as foxes and [[bobcat]]s.<ref name=hornocker2009>{{cite book|last1=Hornocker|first1=M. |last2=Negri|first2=S. |year=2009|title=Cougar: Ecology and Conservation|publisher= University of Chicago Press|page=170|isbn=978-0-226-35347-0|oclc=609634655|url={{Google books|plainurl=yes|id=ZSDUxT3fSYEC|page=170}}}}</ref> Coyotes that are killed are sometimes not eaten, perhaps indicating that these comprise competitive interspecies interactions, however there are multiple confirmed cases of cougars also eating coyotes.<ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Palomares | first1 = F. | last2 = Caro | first2 = T. M. | year = 1999 | title = Interspecific killing among mammalian carnivores | url =https://digital.csic.es/bitstream/10261/51387/1/Palomares%20%26%20Caro_1999_Am%20Nat.pdf | journal = The American Naturalist | volume = 153 | issue = 5 | pages = 492–508 | doi=10.1086/303189| pmid = 29578790 | hdl = 10261/51387 | s2cid = 4343007 | hdl-access = free }}</ref><ref>Ackerman, B. B., Lindzey, F. G., & Hemker, T. P. (1984). ''Cougar food habits in southern Utah''. The Journal of Wildlife Management, 147–155.</ref> In northeastern [[Mexico]], cougar predation on coyotes continues apace but coyotes were absent from the prey spectrum of sympatric [[jaguar]]s, apparently due to differing habitat usages.<ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Hernández-Saint Martín | first1 = A. D. | last2 = Rosas-Rosas | first2 = O. C. | last3 = Palacio-Núñez | first3 = J. | last4 = Tarango-Arambula | first4 = L. A. | last5 = Clemente-Sánchez | first5 = F. | last6 = Hoogesteijn | first6 = A. L. | year = 2015 | title = Food habits of jaguar and puma in a protected area and adjacent fragmented landscape of Northeastern Mexico | journal = Natural Areas Journal | volume = 35 | issue = 2| pages = 308–317 | doi=10.3375/043.035.0213| s2cid = 86622145 }}</ref>

Other than by gray wolves and cougars, predation on adult coyotes is relatively rare but multiple other predators can be occasional threats. In some cases, adult coyotes have been preyed upon by both [[American black bear|American black]] and [[grizzly bear]]s,<ref>Beer, ''Encyclopedia of North American Mammals: An Essential Guide to Mammals of North America''. Thunder Bay Press (2004), {{ISBN|978-1-59223-191-1}}.</ref> [[American alligator]]s,<ref name= Guggisberg>{{cite book | author = Guggisberg, C.A.W. | title = Crocodiles: Their Natural History, Folklore, and Conservation| year = 1972 | isbn = 978-0-7153-5272-4 | page = 195| publisher = David & Charles}}</ref> large [[Canada lynx]]<ref>O’Donoghue, M., Boutin, S., Murray, D. L., Krebs, C. J., Hofer, E. J., Breitenmoser, U., Breitenmoser-Wuersten, C., Zuleta, G., Doyle, C. & Nams, V. O. (2001). ''Coyotes and lynx''. Ecosystem dynamics of the boreal forest: the Kluane project. Oxford University Press, New York, New York, USA, 276–323.</ref> and [[golden eagle]]s.<ref>{{cite journal|url=http://www.aphis.usda.gov/wildlife_damage/nwrc/publications/00pubs/00-41.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080922194907/http://www.aphis.usda.gov/wildlife_damage/nwrc/publications/00pubs/00-41.pdf |archive-date=2008-09-22 |url-status=live |title=Golden Eagle Attacks and Kills Adult Male Coyote |author=Mason, J.R. |year=2000 |journal=Journal of Raptor Research |volume=34 |issue=3 |pages=244–245}}</ref> At kill sites and carrion, coyotes, especially if working alone, tend to be dominated by wolves, cougars, bears, [[wolverine]]s and, usually but not always, [[eagle]]s (i.e., [[Bald eagle|bald]] and golden). When such larger, more powerful or more aggressive predators such as these come to a shared feeding site, a coyote may either try to fight, wait until the other predator is done or occasionally share a kill, but if a major danger such as wolves or an adult cougar is present, the coyote will tend to flee.<ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Allen | first1 = M. L. | last2 = Elbroch | first2 = L. M. | last3 = Wilmers | first3 = C. C. | last4 = Wittmer | first4 = H. U. | year = 2015 | title = The comparative effects of large carnivores on the acquisition of carrion by scavengers | journal = The American Naturalist | volume = 185 | issue = 6| pages = 822–833 | doi=10.1086/681004| pmid = 25996866 | hdl = 2142/101871 | s2cid = 206003003 | hdl-access = free }}</ref><ref>Green, G. I., Mattson, D. J., & Peek, J. M. (1997). ''Spring feeding on ungulate carcasses by grizzly bears in Yellowstone National Park''. The Journal of wildlife management, 1040-1055.</ref><ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Wilmers | first1 = C. C. | last2 = Stahler | first2 = D. R. | last3 = Crabtree | first3 = R. L. | last4 = Smith | first4 = D. W. | last5 = Getz | first5 = W. M. | year = 2003 | title = Resource dispersion and consumer dominance: scavenging at wolf-and hunter-killed carcasses in Greater Yellowstone, USA | url = https://escholarship.org/uc/item/4w12t8gz| journal = Ecology Letters | volume = 6 | issue = 11| pages = 996–1003 | doi=10.1046/j.1461-0248.2003.00522.x| bibcode = 2003EcolL...6..996W | s2cid = 55961335 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Hornocker | first1 = M. G. | last2 = Hash | first2 = H. S. | year = 1981 | title = Ecology of the wolverine in northwestern Montana | journal = Canadian Journal of Zoology | volume = 59 | issue = 7| pages = 1286–1301 | doi=10.1139/z81-181}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Bowen | first1 = W. D. | year = 1980 | title = Coyote-Golden Eagle interactions at an ungulate carcass | journal = J. Mammal. | volume = 61 | issue = 2| pages = 376–377 | doi=10.2307/1380075| jstor = 1380075 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Jordheim | first1 = S | year = 1980 | title = Eagle-coyote incident | journal = Blue Jay | volume = 38 | pages = 47–48 | doi = 10.29173/bluejay4577 | doi-access = free }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Jung | first1 = T. S. | last2 = Everatt | first2 = K. T. | last3 = Andresen-Everatt | first3 = L. M. | year = 2009 | title = Kleptoparasitism of a coyote (Canis latrans) by a golden eagle (Aquila chrysaetos) in Northwestern Canada | journal = Northwestern Naturalist | volume = 90 | issue = 1| pages = 53–55 | doi=10.1898/1051-1733-90.1.53| s2cid = 86356027 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|author=McCollough, M. A. |author2= Todd, C. S. |author3= Owen R. B. Jr. |year=1994|title=Supplemental feeding program for wintering Bald Eagles in Maine|journal= Wildlife Society Bulletin|volume= 22|issue=2|pages=147–154|jstor=3783240|doi=10.1016/0006-3207(96)83230-7}}</ref>

Coyotes rarely kill healthy adult [[red fox]]es, and have been observed to feed or den alongside them, though they often kill foxes caught in traps. Coyotes may kill fox kits, but this is not a major source of mortality.<ref>{{cite journal|author1=Sargeant, Alan B. |author2=Allen, Stephen H. |year=1989|title=Observed interactions between coyotes and red foxes|journal=Journal of Mammalogy|volume= 70|issue=3|pages=631–633|doi=10.2307/1381437 |jstor=1381437 |issn=1545-1542|oclc=39098574}}</ref> In southern California, coyotes frequently kill [[gray fox]]es, and these smaller canids tend to avoid areas with high coyote densities.<ref name=fedriani2000>{{Cite journal |author1=Fedriani, J. M. |author2=Fuller, T. K. |author3=Sauvajot, R. M. |author4=York, E. C. |year=2000 |title=Competition and intraguild predation among three sympatric carnivores |journal=Oecologia |volume=125 |pages=258–270 |url=http://www.ebd.csic.es/cani/public_html/Oecologia_00.pdf |doi=10.1007/s004420000448 |pmid=24595837 |issue=2 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111006040228/http://www.ebd.csic.es/cani/public_html/Oecologia_00.pdf |archive-date=October 6, 2011|issn=1432-1939|oclc=76327396|bibcode=2000Oecol.125..258F |hdl=10261/54628 |s2cid=24289407 |hdl-access=free }}</ref>

In some areas, coyotes share their ranges with bobcats. These two similarly-sized species rarely physically confront one another, though bobcat populations tend to diminish in areas with high coyote densities.<ref>{{Cite journal |doi=10.1139/z89-170|author1=Litvaitis, J. A. |author2=D. J. Harrison|year=1989|title= Bobcat-coyote niche relationships during a period of coyote population increase|journal= Canadian Journal of Zoology |volume=67 |pages=1180–1188|issue=5}}</ref> However, several studies have demonstrated interference competition between coyotes and bobcats, and in all cases coyotes dominated the interaction.<ref name=bunnell2006>{{Cite journal |title=Potential Impacts of Coyotes and Snowmobiles on Lynx Conservation in the Intermountain West|journal=Wildlife Society Bulletin|doi=10.2193/0091-7648(2006)34[828:PIOCAS]2.0.CO;2|jstor=3784713|year=2006 |volume=34 |last1=Bunnell |first1=Kevin D. |last2=Flinders|first2=Jerran T. |last3=Wolfe|first3=Michael L. |issue=3|pages=828–838|s2cid=85901240 |issn=1938-5463|oclc=60353682}}</ref><ref name=gipson2002/> Multiple researchers<ref>Anderson, E. M. (1986). ''Bobcat behavioral ecology in relation to resource use in southeastern Colorado''. Dissertation, Colorado State University, Fort Collins, USA.</ref><ref>Jackson, D. H. (1986). ''Ecology of bobcats in east-central Colorado''. Dissertation, Colorado State University, Fort Collins, USA.</ref><ref>Toweill, D. E. (1986). ''Resource partitioning by bobcats and coyotes in a coniferous forest''. Thesis, Oregon State University, Corvallis, USA</ref><ref name=gipson2002/><ref>{{Cite journal|jstor=3830671|author=Knick, S. T. |year=1990|title= Ecology of bobcats relative to exploitation and a prey decline in southeastern Idaho|journal= Wildlife Monographs|volume=108|pages=1–42|issue=108}}</ref> reported instances of coyotes killing bobcats, whereas bobcats killing coyotes is more rare.<ref name="bunnell2006" /> Coyotes attack bobcats using a bite-and-shake method similar to what is used on medium-sized prey. Coyotes, both single individuals and groups, have been known to occasionally kill bobcats. In most cases, the bobcats were relatively small specimens, such as adult females and juveniles.<ref name=gipson2002>{{Cite journal |author1=Gipson, P. S. |author2= Kamler, J. F. |jstor=3672519|title=Bobcat Killed by a Coyote|journal=The Southwestern Naturalist|volume=47|issue=3|year=2002|pages=511–513|doi=10.2307/3672519|issn=0038-4909|oclc=525604174}}</ref> 

Coyote attacks, by an unknown number of coyotes, on adult male bobcats have occurred. In California, coyote and bobcat populations are not negatively correlated across different habitat types, but predation by coyotes is an important source of mortality in bobcats.<ref name=fedriani2000/> Biologist [[Stanley Paul Young]] noted that in his entire trapping career, he had never successfully saved a captured bobcat from being killed by coyotes, and wrote of two incidents wherein coyotes chased bobcats up trees.<ref name="young93"/> Coyotes have been documented to directly kill [[Canada lynx]] on occasion,<ref name=ripple2011>{{Cite journal | doi = 10.1002/wsb.59 |url=http://www.cof.orst.edu/leopold/papers/Ripple_etal_Lynx2011.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140416235040/http://www.cof.orst.edu/leopold/papers/Ripple_etal_Lynx2011.pdf |archive-date=2014-04-16 |url-status=live| title = Can restoring wolves aid in lynx recovery?| journal = Wildlife Society Bulletin| volume = 35| issue = 4| pages = 514–518| year = 2011| last1 = Ripple | first1 = W. J. | last2 = Wirsing | first2 = A. J. | last3 = Beschta | first3 = R. L. | last4 = Buskirk | first4 = S. W. |bibcode=2011WSBu...35..514R }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|author=O'Donoghue, M. |author2=Hofer, E. J. |author3=Doyle, F. I. |year=1995|title= Predator versus predator|journal= Natural History |volume=104|pages=6–9}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last=Rockwood|first=Larry L. |year=2015|url={{Google books|plainurl=yes |id=xHFuCAAAQBAJ|page=273}}|title=Introduction to Population Ecology|location=Chichester, United Kingdom|publisher=John Wiley and Sons|page=273|isbn=978-1-118-94755-5|oclc=899267730}}</ref> and compete with them for prey, especially [[snowshoe hare]]s.<ref name=ripple2011/> In some areas, including central Alberta, lynx are more abundant where coyotes are few, thus interactions with coyotes appears to influence lynx populations more than the availability of snowshoe hares.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Bushkirk|first1=S. W. |last2=Ruggiero|first2=L. F. |last3=Krebs|first3=C. J.|year=2000|chapter-url=http://www.fs.fed.us/rm/pubs/rmrs_gtr030/rmrs_gtr030_083_100.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070226023730/http://www.fs.fed.us/rm/pubs/rmrs_gtr030/rmrs_gtr030_083_100.pdf |archive-date=2007-02-26 |url-status=live|chapter=Habitat Fragmentation and Interspecific Competition: Implications for Lynx Conservation|pages=91–92|editor1-first=L. F.|editor1-last=Ruggiero|editor2-first=K. B.|editor2-last=Aubry|editor3-first=S. W.|editor3-last=Buskirk|editor4-first=G. M.|editor4-last=Koehler|editor5-first=C. J.|editor5-last=Krebs |editor6-first=K. S. |editor6-last=McKelvey|editor7-first=J. R.|editor7-last=Squires|title=Ecology and conservation of lynx in the United States|publisher=University of Colorado Press|location=Denver}}</ref>