Editing Concrete (section)

==Alternative types==
{{main|Types of concrete}}

===Asphalt===
{{main|Asphalt concrete}}

''Asphalt concrete'' (commonly called ''asphalt'',<ref>{{cite book |title=The American Heritage Dictionary of the English Language |year=2011 |publisher=Houghton Mifflin Harcourt |location=Boston |isbn=978-0-547-04101-8 |page=106 }}</ref> ''blacktop'', or ''pavement'' in North America, and ''tarmac'', ''bitumen macadam'', or ''rolled asphalt'' in the [[United Kingdom]] and [[Republic of Ireland|Ireland]]) is a [[composite material]] commonly used to surface [[road surface|roads]], [[parking lot]]s, [[airport]]s, as well as the core of [[embankment dam]]s.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.waterpowermagazine.com/story.asp?storyCode=472 |title=Asphalt concrete cores for embankment dams |publisher=International Water Power and Dam Construction |access-date=3 April 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120707001414/http://www.waterpowermagazine.com/story.asp?storyCode=472 |archive-date=7 July 2012 }}</ref> Asphalt mixtures have been used in pavement construction since the beginning of the twentieth century.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Polaczyk |first1=Pawel |last2=Huang |first2=Baoshan |last3=Shu |first3=Xiang |last4=Gong |first4=Hongren |title=Investigation into Locking Point of Asphalt Mixtures Utilizing Superpave and Marshall Compactors |journal=Journal of Materials in Civil Engineering |date=September 2019 |volume=31 |issue=9 |doi=10.1061/(ASCE)MT.1943-5533.0002839 |s2cid=197635732 }}</ref> It consists of [[Construction aggregate|mineral aggregate]] [[Binder (material)|bound]] together with [[Bitumen|asphalt]], laid in layers, and compacted. The process was refined and enhanced by Belgian inventor and U.S. immigrant [[Edward De Smedt]].<ref>{{cite book|url={{google books|plainurl=y|id=6iS8BwAAQBAJ|page=120}}|title=Roads Were Not Built for Cars: How Cyclists Were the First to Push for Good Roads & Became the Pioneers of Motoring |last=Reid |first=Carlton |date=2015 |publisher=Island Press |isbn=978-1-61091-689-9|page=120|language=en}}</ref>

The terms ''asphalt'' (or ''asphaltic'') ''concrete'', ''bituminous asphalt concrete'', and ''bituminous mixture'' are typically used only in [[engineering]] and construction documents, which define concrete as any composite material composed of mineral aggregate adhered with a binder. The abbreviation, ''AC'', is sometimes used for ''asphalt concrete'' but can also denote ''asphalt content'' or ''asphalt cement'', referring to the liquid asphalt portion of the composite material.

=== Graphene enhanced concrete ===
Graphene enhanced concretes are standard designs of concrete mixes, except that during the cement-mixing or production process, a small amount of chemically engineered [[graphene]] {{nowrap|(typically < 0.5% by weight)}} is added.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Dalal |first1=Sejal P. |last2=Dalal |first2=Purvang |title=Experimental Investigation on Strength and Durability of Graphene Nanoengineered Concrete |journal=Construction and Building Materials |date=March 2021 |volume=276 |page=122236 |doi=10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2020.122236 |s2cid=233663658 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Dalal |first1=Sejal P. |last2=Desai |first2=Kandarp |last3=Shah |first3=Dhairya |last4=Prajapati |first4=Sanjay |last5=Dalal |first5=Purvang |last6=Gandhi |first6=Vimal |last7=Shukla |first7=Atindra |last8=Vithlani |first8=Ravi |title=Strength and feasibility aspects of concrete mixes induced with low-cost surfactant functionalized graphene powder |journal=Asian Journal of Civil Engineering |date=January 2022 |volume=23 |issue=1 |pages=39–52 |doi=10.1007/s42107-021-00407-7|s2cid=257110774 }}</ref> These enhanced graphene concretes are designed around the concrete application.

=== Microbial ===
Bacteria such as ''[[Bacillus pasteurii]]'', ''[[Bacillus pseudofirmus]]'', ''Bacillus cohnii'', ''Sporosarcina pasteuri'', and ''[[Arthrobacter crystallopoietes]]'' increase the compression strength of concrete through their biomass. However some forms of bacteria can also be concrete-destroying.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Falkow |first1=Stanley |last2=Rosenberg |first2=Eugene |last3=Schleifer |first3=Karl-Heinz |last4=Stackebrandt |first4=Erko |title=The Prokaryotes: Vol. 2: Ecophysiology and Biochemistry |date=13 July 2006 |publisher=Springer Science & Business Media |isbn=978-0-387-25492-0 |page=1005 |url={{google books|plainurl=y|id=kyAZ47ZrazkC|page=1005}} |language=en}}</ref>  Bacillus sp. CT-5. can reduce corrosion of reinforcement in reinforced concrete by up to four times. ''Sporosarcina pasteurii'' reduces water and chloride permeability. ''B. pasteurii'' increases resistance to acid.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Metwally |first1=Gehad A. M. |last2=Mahdy |first2=Mohamed |last3=Abd El-Raheem |first3=Ahmed El-Raheem H. |title=Performance of Bio Concrete by Using Bacillus Pasteurii Bacteria |journal=Civil Engineering Journal |date=August 2020 |volume=6 |issue=8 |pages=1443–1456 |doi=10.28991/cej-2020-03091559 |doi-access=free }}</ref>  ''[[Bacillus pasteurii]]'' and ''B. sphaericuscan'' induce calcium carbonate precipitation in the surface of cracks, adding compression strength.<ref name=raju>{{Cite book|last=Raju|first=N. Krishna|url={{google books |plainurl=y|id=41ekDwAAQBAJ|page=1131}}|title=Prestressed Concrete, 6e|date=2018|publisher=McGraw-Hill Education|isbn=978-93-87886-25-4|page=1131}}</ref>

=== Nanoconcrete ===
[[File:Decorative cameo plate.jpg|thumbnail|Decorative plate made of Nano concrete with High-Energy Mixing (HEM)]]

[[Nanoconcrete]] (also spelled "nano concrete"' or "nano-concrete") is a class of materials that contains Portland cement particles that are no greater than 100 μm<ref>{{cite book|chapter-url={{google books|plainurl=y|id=eRVAAAAAQBAJ|page=485}}|title=Proceedings of the International Symposium on Engineering under Uncertainty: Safety Assessment and Management (ISEUSAM-2012)|last1=Tiwari|first1=AK|last2=Chowdhury|first2=Subrato|date=2013|publisher=Springer India|others=Cakrabartī, Subrata; Bhattacharya, Gautam|isbn=978-81-322-0757-3|location=New Delhi|page=485|chapter=An over view of the application of nanotechnology in construction materials|oclc=831413888}}</ref> and particles of silica no greater than 500 μm, which fill voids that would otherwise occur in normal concrete, thereby substantially increasing the material's strength.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Thanmanaselvi |first1=M |last2=Ramasamy |first2=V |date=2023 |title=A study on durability characteristics of nano-concrete |journal=Materials Today: Proceedings |volume=80 |pages=2360–2365 |doi=10.1016/j.matpr.2021.06.349 |issn=2214-7853}}</ref> It is widely used in foot and highway bridges where high flexural and compressive strength are indicated.<ref name=raju/>

=== Pervious ===
{{Main|Pervious concrete}}

Pervious concrete is a mix of specially graded coarse aggregate, cement, water, and little-to-no fine aggregates. This concrete is also known as "no-fines" or porous concrete. Mixing the ingredients in a carefully controlled process creates a paste that coats and bonds the aggregate particles. The hardened concrete contains interconnected air voids totaling approximately 15 to 25 percent. Water runs through the voids in the pavement to the soil underneath. Air entrainment admixtures are often used in freeze-thaw climates to minimize the possibility of frost damage. Pervious concrete also permits rainwater to filter through roads and parking lots, to recharge aquifers, instead of contributing to runoff and flooding.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Ground Water Recharging Through Pervious Concrete Pavement |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/277231494|access-date=2021-01-26|website=ResearchGate|language=en}}</ref>

=== Polymer ===
{{main|Polymer concrete}}

Polymer concretes are mixtures of aggregate and any of various polymers and may be reinforced. The cement is costlier than lime-based cements, but polymer concretes nevertheless have advantages; they have significant tensile strength even without reinforcement, and they are largely impervious to water. Polymer concretes are frequently used for the repair and construction of other applications, such as drains.

=== Plant fibers ===
Plant fibers and particles can be used in a concrete mix or as a reinforcement.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Onuaguluchi |first1=Obinna |last2=Banthia |first2=Nemkumar |date=2016-04-01 |title=Plant-based natural fibre reinforced cement composites: A review |url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0958946516300269 |journal=Cement and Concrete Composites |volume=68 |pages=96–108 |doi=10.1016/j.cemconcomp.2016.02.014 |issn=0958-9465}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Wu |first1=Hansong |last2=Shen |first2=Aiqin |last3=Cheng |first3=Qianqian |last4=Cai |first4=Yanxia |last5=Ren |first5=Guiping |last6=Pan |first6=Hongmei |last7=Deng |first7=Shiyi |date=2023-09-20 |title=A review of recent developments in application of plant fibers as reinforcements in concrete |url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S095965262302423X |journal=Journal of Cleaner Production |volume=419 |pages=138265 |doi=10.1016/j.jclepro.2023.138265 |bibcode=2023JCPro.41938265W |issn=0959-6526}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Yan |first1=Libo |last2=Kasal |first2=Bohumil |last3=Huang |first3=Liang |date=2016-05-01 |title=A review of recent research on the use of cellulosic fibres, their fibre fabric reinforced cementitious, geo-polymer and polymer composites in civil engineering |url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S1359836816001025 |journal=Composites Part B: Engineering |volume=92 |pages=94–132 |doi=10.1016/j.compositesb.2016.02.002 |issn=1359-8368}}</ref> These materials can increase ductility but the lignocellulosic particles hydrolyze during concrete curing as a result of alkaline environment and elevated temperatures<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Li |first1=Juan |last2=Kasal |first2=Bohumil |date=July 2023 |title=Degradation Mechanism of the Wood-Cell Wall Surface in a Cement Environment Measured by Atomic Force Microscopy |url=https://ascelibrary.org/doi/10.1061/JMCEE7.MTENG-14910 |journal=Journal of Materials in Civil Engineering |language=en |volume=35 |issue=7 |doi=10.1061/JMCEE7.MTENG-14910 |issn=0899-1561}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Li |first1=Juan |last2=Kasal |first2=Bohumil |date=2022-08-10 |title=The immediate and short-term degradation of the wood surface in a cement environment measured by AFM |journal=Materials and Structures |language=en |volume=55 |issue=7 |pages=179 |doi=10.1617/s11527-022-01988-8 |issn=1871-6873|doi-access=free }}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Li |first1=Juan |last2=Kasal |first2=Bohumil |date=2022-04-11 |title=Effects of Thermal Aging on the Adhesion Forces of Biopolymers of Wood Cell Walls |journal=Biomacromolecules |language=en |volume=23 |issue=4 |pages=1601–1609 |doi=10.1021/acs.biomac.1c01397 |issn=1525-7797 |pmc=9006222 |pmid=35303409}}</ref> Such process, that is difficult to measure,<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Li |first1=Juan |last2=Bohumil |first2=Kasal |date=2021-02-05 |title=Repeatability of Adhesion Force Measurement on Wood Longitudinal Cut Cell Wall Using Atomic Force Microscopy |url=https://wfs.swst.org/index.php/wfs/article/view/2971 |journal=Wood and Fiber Science |language=en |volume=53 |issue=1 |pages=3–16 |doi=10.22382/wfs-2021-02 |issn=0735-6161}}</ref> can affect the properties of the resulting concrete.

=== Sulfur concrete ===
{{Main|Sulfur concrete}}

Sulfur concrete is a special concrete that uses sulfur as a binder and does not require cement or water.

=== Volcanic ===
Volcanic concrete substitutes volcanic rock for the limestone that is burned to form clinker. It consumes a similar amount of energy, but does not directly emit carbon as a byproduct.<ref>{{Cite web|last=Lavars|first=Nick|date=2021-06-10|title=Stanford's low-carbon cement swaps limestone for volcanic rock|url=https://newatlas.com/materials/stanfords-low-carbon-cement-volcanic-rock/|url-status=live|access-date=2021-06-11|website=New Atlas|language=en-US|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210610065226/https://newatlas.com/materials/stanfords-low-carbon-cement-volcanic-rock/ |archive-date=10 June 2021 }}</ref> Volcanic rock/ash are used as supplementary cementitious materials in concrete to improve the resistance to sulfate, chloride and alkali silica reaction due to pore refinement.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Celik |first1=K. |last2=Jackson |first2=M.D. |last3=Mancio |first3=M. |last4=Meral |first4=C. |last5=Emwas |first5=A.-H. |last6=Mehta |first6=P.K. |last7=Monteiro |first7=P.J.M. |title=High-volume natural volcanic pozzolan and limestone powder as partial replacements for portland cement in self-compacting and sustainable concrete |journal=Cement and Concrete Composites |date=January 2014 |volume=45 |pages=136–147 |doi=10.1016/j.cemconcomp.2013.09.003 |hdl=11511/37244 |s2cid=138740924 |url=https://www.escholarship.org/uc/item/6mq3j474 }}</ref> Also, they are generally cost effective in comparison to other aggregates,<ref name=Lemougna>{{cite journal |last1=Lemougna |first1=Patrick N. |last2=Wang |first2=Kai-tuo |last3=Tang |first3=Qing |last4=Nzeukou |first4=A.N. |last5=Billong |first5=N. |last6=Melo |first6=U. Chinje |last7=Cui |first7=Xue-min |title=Review on the use of volcanic ashes for engineering applications |journal=Resources, Conservation and Recycling |date=October 2018 |volume=137 |pages=177–190 |doi=10.1016/j.resconrec.2018.05.031 |bibcode=2018RCR...137..177L |s2cid=117442866 }}</ref> good for semi and light weight concretes,<ref name=Lemougna/> and good for thermal and acoustic insulation.<ref name=Lemougna/>

Pyroclastic materials, such as pumice, scoria, and ashes are formed from cooling magma during explosive volcanic eruptions. They are used as supplementary cementitious materials (SCM) or as aggregates for cements and concretes.<ref>{{cite book |doi=10.1016/b0-12-369396-9/00153-2 |chapter=Pyroclastics |title=Encyclopedia of Geology |date=2005 |last1=Brown |first1=R.J. |last2=Calder |first2=E.S. |pages=386–397 |isbn=978-0-12-369396-9 }}</ref> They have been extensively used since ancient times to produce materials for building applications. For example, pumice and other volcanic glasses were added as a natural pozzolanic material for mortars and plasters during the construction of the Villa San Marco in the Roman period (89 BC – 79 AD), which remain one of the best-preserved otium villae of the Bay of Naples in Italy.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Izzo |first1=Francesco |last2=Arizzi |first2=Anna |last3=Cappelletti |first3=Piergiulio |last4=Cultrone |first4=Giuseppe |last5=De Bonis |first5=Alberto |last6=Germinario |first6=Chiara |last7=Graziano |first7=Sossio Fabio |last8=Grifa |first8=Celestino |last9=Guarino |first9=Vincenza |last10=Mercurio |first10=Mariano |last11=Morra |first11=Vincenzo |last12=Langella |first12=Alessio |title=The art of building in the Roman period (89 B.C. – 79 A.D.): Mortars, plasters and mosaic floors from ancient Stabiae (Naples, Italy) |journal=Construction and Building Materials |date=August 2016 |volume=117 |pages=129–143 |doi=10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2016.04.101 }}</ref>

===Waste light===
{{main|Waste light concrete}}

Waste light is a form of polymer modified concrete. The specific polymer admixture allows the replacement of all the traditional aggregates (gravel, sand, stone) by any mixture of solid waste materials in the grain size of 3–10&nbsp;mm to form a low-compressive-strength (3–20&nbsp;N/mm<sup>2</sup>) product<ref>{{cite web |title=MASUKO light concrete |url=http://www.masuko.hu/eindex.php |access-date=13 November 2020 |archive-date=15 November 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201115055625/http://www.masuko.hu/eindex.php |url-status=dead }}</ref> for road and building construction. One cubic meter of waste light concrete contains 1.1–1.3&nbsp;m<sup>3</sup> of shredded waste and no other aggregates.

===Recycled Aggregate Concrete (RAC)===
{{unreferenced section|date=October 2024}}

Recycled aggregate concretes are standard concrete mixes with the addition or substitution of natural aggregates with recycled aggregates sourced from construction and demolition wastes, disused pre-cast concretes or masonry. In most cases, recycled aggregate concrete results in higher water absorption levels by capillary action and permeation, which are the prominent determiners of the strength and durability of the resulting concrete. The increase in water absorption levels is mainly caused by the porous adhered mortar that exists in the recycled aggregates. Accordingly, recycled concrete aggregates that have been washed to reduce the quantity of mortar adhered to aggregates show lower water absorption levels compared to untreated recycled aggregates.

The quality of the recycled aggregate concrete is determined by several factors, including the size, the number of replacement cycles, and the moisture levels of the recycled aggregates. When the recycled concrete aggregates are crushed into coarser fractures, the mixed concrete shows better permeability levels, resulting in an overall increase in strength. In contrast, recycled masonry aggregates provide better qualities when crushed in finer fractures. With each generation of recycled concrete, the resulting compressive strength decreases.