Editing Chinese culture (section)

== Arts ==
{{multiple image	
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 | image1 = Pine, Plum and Cranes.jpg
 | caption1 = ''Pine, Plum and Cranes'', 1759, by Shen Quan (1682–1760). Hanging scroll, ink and colour on silk. The [[Forbidden City|Palace Museum]], [[Beijing]].	
 | image2 = Lin Liang-Eagles.jpg		
 | caption2 = Chinese [[ink wash painting]] called ''Eagles'' by [[Lin Liang]] (1416–1480). Located at the [[National Palace Museum]] in [[Taipei]].	
}}
{{Further|Arts of China}}
Chinese art is [[visual art]] that, whether ancient or modern, originated in or is practiced in China or by Chinese artists. The Chinese art in the [[Republic of China]] (Taiwan) and that of [[overseas Chinese]] can also be considered part of Chinese art where it is based in or draws on Chinese heritage and Chinese culture. Early "[[Stone Age]] art" dates back to 10,000 BC, mostly consisting of simple [[pottery]] and sculptures. After this early period Chinese art, like Chinese history, is typically classified by the succession of ruling [[Dynasty|dynasties]] of [[Chinese emperors]], most of which lasted several hundred years.

Chinese art has arguably the oldest continuous tradition in the world, and is marked by an unusual degree of continuity within, and consciousness of, that tradition, lacking an equivalent to the Western collapse and gradual recovery of classical styles. The media that have usually been classified in the West since the [[Renaissance]] as the [[decorative arts]] are extremely important in Chinese art, and much of the finest work was produced in large workshops or factories by essentially unknown artists, especially in [[Chinese ceramics]].

Different forms of art have swayed under the influence of great philosophers, teachers, religious figures and even political figures. Chinese art encompasses all facets of [[fine art]], [[Chinese folk art|folk art]] and [[performance art]]. [[Chinese ceramics|Porcelain pottery]] was one of the first forms of art in the [[List of Palaeolithic sites in China|Palaeolithic]] period. Early Chinese music and poetry was influenced by the ''[[Classic of Poetry|Book of Songs]]'', and the Chinese poet and statesman [[Qu Yuan]].

[[Chinese painting]] became a highly appreciated art in court circles encompassing a wide variety of [[Shan shui]] with specialized styles such as [[Ming dynasty painting]]. Early [[List of traditional Chinese musical instruments|Chinese music]] was based on percussion instruments, which later gave away to stringed and reed instruments. By the [[Han dynasty]] [[Chinese Paper Cutting|papercutting]] became a new art form after the invention of paper. [[Chinese opera]] would also be introduced and branched regionally in addition to other performance formats such as [[Chinese variety arts|variety arts]].

=== Chinese lantern ===
{{Main|Paper lantern|Sky lantern}}
[[File:Red lanterns, Spring Festival, Ditan Park Beijing.JPG|thumb|left|upright=1.15|Red lanterns are hung from the trees during the Chinese New Year celebrations in Ditan Park (Temple of Earth) in Beijing.]]
The Chinese paper lantern (紙燈籠, 纸灯笼) is a [[lantern]] made of thin, brightly colored paper.<ref name=freedictionary_lantern>{{cite web|title=Chinese lantern|url=http://www.thefreedictionary.com/Chinese+lantern|publisher=The Free Dictionary|access-date=18 May 2014|archive-date=18 May 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140518063819/http://www.thefreedictionary.com/Chinese+lantern|url-status=live}}</ref> Paper lanterns come in various shapes and sizes, as well as various methods of construction. In their simplest form, they are simply a [[paper bag]] with a [[candle]] placed inside, although more complicated [[lantern]]s consist of a collapsible [[bamboo]] or metal frame of hoops covered with tough [[paper]]. Sometimes, other lanterns can be made out of colored silk (usually red) or vinyl. Silk lanterns are also collapsible with a metal expander and are decorated with Chinese characters and/or designs. The vinyl lanterns are more durable; they can resist rain, sunlight, and wind. Paper lanterns do not last very long, they soon break, and silk lanterns last longer. The gold paper on them will soon fade away to a pale white, and the red silk will become a mix between pink and red. Often associated with [[festival]]s, paper lanterns are common in China, Japan, Korea, Taiwan, and similarly in [[Chinatown]]s with large communities of [[Overseas Chinese]], where they are often hung outside of businesses to attract attention. In Japan [[Traditional lighting equipment of Japan|the traditional styles]] include ''[[bonbori]]'' and ''chōchin'' and there is a special style of lettering called ''[[edomoji|chōchin moji]]'' used to write on them. Airborne paper lanterns are called [[sky lanterns]], and are often released into the night sky for aesthetic effect at [[lantern festival]]s.

The Chinese sky lantern (天燈, 天灯), also known as ''Kongming lantern'', is a small [[hot air balloon]] made of paper, with an opening at the bottom where a small fire is suspended. In Asia and elsewhere around the world, sky lanterns have been traditionally made for centuries, to be launched for play or as part of long-established festivities. The name "sky lantern" is a translation of the [[Standard Chinese|Chinese]] name but they have also been referred to as ''sky candles'' or ''fire balloons''. The general design is a thin paper shell, which may be from about 30 [[centimetre|cm]] to a couple of [[metre]]s across, with an opening at the bottom. The opening is usually about 10 to 30&nbsp;cm wide (even for the largest shells), and is surrounded by a stiff collar that serves to suspend the [[flame]] source and to keep it away from the walls. When lit, the flame heats the air inside the lantern, thus lowering its density and causing the lantern to rise into the air. The sky lantern is only airborne for as long as the flame stays alight, after which the lantern sinks back to the ground.

=== Chinese hand fan ===
[[File:Non electric fan aka solfjader.jpg|thumb|A commercially produced scented wood folding fan, featuring a drawing of the [[Great Wall of China]].]]
The oldest existing Chinese fans are a pair of woven [[bamboo]], wood or paper side-mounted fans from the 2nd century BCE.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.aboutdecorativestyle.com/articles/history_fans.htm|title=articles – brief history of fans|work=aboutdecorativestyle.com|access-date=8 January 2019|archive-date=22 June 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170622012142/http://www.aboutdecorativestyle.com/articles/history_fans.htm|url-status=live}}</ref> The [[Chinese character]] for "fan" (扇) is etymologically derived from a picture of feathers under a roof. A particular status and gender would be associated with a specific type of fan. During the [[Song dynasty]], famous artists were often commissioned to paint fans.  The Chinese dancing fan was developed in the 7th century. The Chinese form of the hand fan was a row of feathers mounted in the end of a handle. In the later centuries, Chinese poems and four-word idioms were used to decorate the fans by using Chinese calligraphy pens.  In ancient China, fans came in various shapes and forms (such as in a leaf, oval or a half-moon shape), and were made in different materials such as silk, bamboo, feathers, etc.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.hand-fan.org/chinese_hand_fans.html|title=Chinese Hand Fans|work=hand-fan.org|access-date=8 January 2019|archive-date=2 February 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190202022038/http://www.hand-fan.org/chinese_hand_fans.html|url-status=live}}</ref>

=== Carved lacquer ===
[[File:Lacquered box with character for luck, Qianlong Period.JPG|thumb|left|Box with the character for "Spring" ({{lang|zh|春}}), [[Qianlong]] period, [[Qing dynasty]]. [[Nanjing Museum]]]]
{{Main|Carved lacquer}}
Carved lacquer or  ''Qīdiāo'' ({{zh|漆雕}}) is a distinctive Chinese form of decorated [[lacquerware]].  While lacquer has been used in China for at least 3,000 years,<ref name="Grove">Grove {{full citation needed|date=June 2023}}</ref> the technique of carving into very thick coatings of it appears to have been developed in the 12th century CE. It is extremely time-consuming to produce, and has always been a luxury product, essentially restricted to China,<ref>Grove; Cinnabar {{full citation needed|date=June 2023}}</ref> though imitated in [[Japanese lacquerware|Japanese lacquer]] in somewhat different styles.  The producing process is called '''Diāoqī''' ({{lang|zh|雕漆}}/彫漆, carving lacquer).Though most surviving examples are from the [[Ming dynasty|Ming]] and [[Qing dynasty|Qing]] dynasties, the main types of subject matter for the carvings were all begun under the [[Song dynasty]], and the development of both these and the technique of carving were essentially over by the early Ming.  These types were the abstract ''guri'' or Sword-Pommel pattern, figures in a landscape, and birds and plants.  To these some designs with religious symbols, animals, auspicious characters ''(right)'' and imperial dragons can be added.<ref name="Grove"/> The objects made in the technique are a wide range of small types, but are mostly practical vessels or containers such as boxes, plates and trays. Some screens and pieces of [[Chinese furniture]] were made. Carved lacquer is only rarely combined with painting in lacquer and other lacquer techniques.<ref>Watt and Ford, p. 3 {{full citation needed|date=June 2023}}</ref>

Later Chinese writers dated the introduction of carved lacquer to the [[Tang dynasty]] (618–906), and many modern writers have pointed to some late Tang pieces of armour found on the [[Silk Road]] by [[Aurel Stein]] and now in the [[British Museum]].  These are red and black lacquer on [[camel]] hide, but the lacquer is very thin, "less than one millimeter in thickness", and the effect very different, with simple abstract shapes on a plain field and almost no impression of [[relief]].<ref>Watt and Ford, pp. 6–7 (p. 7 quoted) {{full citation needed|date=June 2023}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=armour / 盔甲 (MAS 621) |publisher=The British Museum |website=Collection online |url=http://www.britishmuseum.org/research/collection_online/collection_object_details.aspx?objectId=228794&partId=1&searchText=Lacquer+armour+aurel+Stein&page=1 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171107015234/http://www.britishmuseum.org/research/collection_online/collection_object_details.aspx?objectId=228794&partId=1&searchText=Lacquer+armour+aurel+Stein&page=1 |archive-date=7 November 2017 |url-status=dead |at=See "Curator's comments"}}</ref><ref>Kuwayama, pp. 13–14 {{full citation needed|date=June 2023}}; Rawson, p. 175 {{full citation needed|date=June 2023}}; Grove, "Tang" {{full citation needed|date=June 2023}}</ref> The style of carving into thick lacquer used later is first seen in the [[Southern Song]] (1127–1279), following the development of techniques for making very thick lacquer.<ref>Watt and Ford, p. 7 {{full citation needed|date=June 2023}}; Rawson, p. 175 {{full citation needed|date=June 2023}}</ref> There is some evidence from literary sources that it had existed in the late Tang.<ref>Kuwayama, pp. 13–14 {{full citation needed|date=June 2023}}</ref> At first the style of decoration used is known as ''guri'' ({{lang|zh|屈輪}}/曲仑) from the Japanese word for the ring-pommel of a sword, where the same motifs were used in metal, and is often called the "Sword-Pommel pattern" in English.  This style uses a family of repeated two-branched scrolling shapes cut with a rounded profile at the surface, but below that a "V" section through layers of lacquer in different colours (black, red and yellow, and later green), giving a "marbled" effect from the contrasted colours; this technique is called ''tìxī'' ({{lang|zh|剔犀}}/剃犀) in Chinese.  This style continued to be used up to the [[Ming dynasty]], especially on small boxes and jars with covers, though after the Song only red was often used, and the motifs were often carved with wider flat spaces at the bottom level to be exposed.<ref>Watt and Ford, pp. 26–27, 46–61, 60 for the use of green {{full citation needed|date=June 2023}}; Rawson, p. 178 {{full citation needed|date=June 2023}}; Grove, "Song" {{full citation needed|date=June 2023}}; Kuwayama, pp. 13–17 on the Song {{full citation needed|date=June 2023}}</ref>

=== Folding screen ===
[[File:Hofmobiliendepot - Chinesischer Paravent.jpg|thumb|Chinese folding screen used at the Austrian imperial court, 18th century, the [[Imperial Furniture Collection]]]]
{{Main|Folding screen}}
A folding screen ({{zh|s=屏风|t=屏風}}) is a type of free-standing [[furniture]]. It consists of several frames or panels, which are often connected by [[hinge]]s or by other means. It can be made in a variety of designs and with different kinds of materials. Folding screens have many practical and decorative uses. It originated from [[ancient China]], eventually spreading to the rest of East Asia, Europe, and other parts of the world. Screens date back to China during the Eastern [[Zhou dynasty|Zhou]] period (771–256 BCE).<ref name="handler268">{{cite book|last=Handler|first=Sarah|title=Austere luminosity of Chinese classical furniture|year=2007|publisher=University of California Press|isbn=978-0-520-21484-2|pages=268–271, 275, 277|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=-EKkblrm6sUC|access-date=30 October 2017|archive-date=22 October 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231022223109/https://books.google.com/books?id=-EKkblrm6sUC|url-status=live}}</ref><ref name="mazurkewich">{{cite book|last1=Mazurkewich|first1=Karen|first2=A. Chester|last2=Ong|title=Chinese Furniture: A Guide to Collecting Antiques|year=2006|publisher=Tuttle Publishing|isbn=978-0-8048-3573-2|pages=144–146|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=xswA02E02KwC|access-date=30 October 2017|archive-date=22 October 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231022223033/https://books.google.com/books?id=xswA02E02KwC|url-status=live}}</ref> These were initially one-panel screens in contrast to folding screens.<ref name="needham-v5">{{cite book |last1=Needham |first1=Joseph |author-link1=Joseph Needham |last2=Tsien |first2=Tsuen-hsuin |author-link2=Tsien Tsuen-hsuin |title=Paper and printing, Volume 5 |year=1985 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-0-521-08690-5 |page=120 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Lx-9mS6Aa4wC |access-date=30 October 2017 |archive-date=22 October 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231022223514/https://books.google.com/books?id=Lx-9mS6Aa4wC |url-status=live }}</ref> Folding screens were invented during the [[Han dynasty]] (206 BCE – 220 CE).<ref name="lee">{{cite book|last=Lee|first=O-Young|title=Things Korean|year=1999|publisher=Tuttle Publishing|isbn=978-0-8048-2129-2|page=135|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=9SZtiaK7-0YC|author2=Yi, Ŏ-ryŏng|author3=Holstein, John|access-date=30 October 2017|archive-date=22 October 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231022223515/https://books.google.com/books?id=9SZtiaK7-0YC|url-status=live}}</ref> Depictions of those folding screens have been found in Han-era tombs, such as one in [[Zhucheng]], Shandong Province.<ref name="handler268"/>

Folding screens were originally made from wooden panels and painted on [[lacquerware|lacquered]] surfaces, eventually folding screens made from paper or [[silk]] became popular too.<ref name="needham-v5"/> Even though folding screens were known to have been used since [[Ancient history|antiquity]], it became rapidly popular during the [[Tang dynasty]] (618–907).<ref name="vgulik">{{cite book|last=van Gulik|first=Robert Hans|title=Chinese pictorial art as viewed by the connoisseur: notes on the means and methods of traditional Chinese connoisseurship of pictorial art, based upon a study of the art of mounting scrolls in China and Japan|year=1981|publisher=Hacker Art Books|isbn=978-0-87817-264-1|page=159|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ZqkLAQAAMAAJ|access-date=30 October 2017|archive-date=22 October 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231022223519/https://books.google.com/books?id=ZqkLAQAAMAAJ|url-status=live}}</ref> During the Tang dynasty, folding screens were considered ideal ornaments for many painters to display their [[Chinese painting|paintings]] and [[Chinese calligraphy|calligraphy]] on.<ref name="mazurkewich"/><ref name="needham-v5"/> Many artists painted on paper or silk and applied it onto the folding screen.<ref name="mazurkewich"/> There were two distinct artistic folding screens mentioned in historical literature of the era. One of it was known as the ''{{lang|zh-latn-pinyin|huaping}}'' ({{zh|c=|l=painted folding screen|s=画屏|t=畫屏}}) and the other was known as the ''{{lang|zh-latn-pinyin|shuping}}'' ({{zh|c=|l=calligraphed folding screen|s=书屏|t=書屏}}).<ref name="needham-v5"/><ref name="vgulik"/> It was not uncommon for people to commission folding screens from artists, such as from Tang-era painter Cao Ba or [[Song dynasty|Song-era]] painter [[Guo Xi]].<ref name="mazurkewich"/> The landscape paintings on folding screens reached its height during the Song dynasty (960–1279).<ref name="handler268"/> The [[lacquerware|lacquer techniques]] for the [[Coromandel screen]]s, which is known as ''{{lang|zh-latn-pinyin|kuǎncǎi}}'' ({{lang|zh-hant|款彩}} "incised colors"),<ref>{{cite book |author=張世南 (Zhang Shi'nan) |title=遊宦紀聞 (yóuhuàn jìwén) |date=1200s |chapter-url=https://zh.wikisource.org/wiki/%E9%81%8A%E5%AE%A6%E7%B4%80%E8%81%9E/%E5%8D%B705 |language=zh |chapter=5 |quote={{lang|zh-hant|款謂陰字，是凹入者，刻畫成之}} (''kuǎn'' are inscriptions that are [[intaglio (sculpture)|counter-relief]], achieved by carving) |access-date=30 October 2017 |archive-date=6 February 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170206120942/https://zh.wikisource.org/wiki/%E9%81%8A%E5%AE%A6%E7%B4%80%E8%81%9E/%E5%8D%B705 |url-status=live }}</ref> emerged during the late [[Ming dynasty]] (1368–1644)<ref>{{cite book|last=Clunas|first=Craig|title=Pictures and visuality in early modern China|year=1997|publisher=[[Reaktion Books]]|location=London|isbn=978-1-86189-008-5|page=61|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Q06pemllwx0C|access-date=30 October 2017|archive-date=22 October 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231022223517/https://books.google.com/books?id=Q06pemllwx0C|url-status=live}}</ref> and was applied to folding screens to create dark screens incised, painted, and inlaid with art of [[mother-of-pearl]], ivory, or other materials.

=== Chinese jade ===
{{Main|Chinese jade}}
[[File:Bi with two dragons and grain pattern.jpg|thumb|right|A Chinese jade named [[Bi (jade)|Bi]](璧) with a dual dragon motif, [[Warring States period]]]]
Chinese jade (玉) refers to the [[jade]] [[mining|mined]] or [[hardstone carving|carved]] in China from the [[Neolithic]] onward. It is the primary [[hardstone]] of [[Chinese sculpture]]. Although deep and bright green [[jadeite]] is better known in Europe, for most of China's history, jade has come in a variety of colors and white "mutton-fat" [[nephrite]] was the most highly praised and prized. Native sources in [[Henan]] and along the [[Yangtze]] were exploited since prehistoric times and have largely been exhausted; most Chinese jade today is extracted from the northwestern [[provinces of the People's Republic of China|province]] of [[Xinjiang]]. Jade was prized for its [[scratch hardness|hardness]], [[toughness|durability]], [[yayue|musical qualities]], and beauty.<ref name=fieryglo/> In particular, its subtle, translucent colors and protective qualities<ref name=fieryglo>Fiero, Gloria K. ''The Humanistic Tradition'' 6th Ed, Vol. I. McGraw-Hill, 2010.</ref> caused it to become associated with Chinese conceptions of the [[Chinese soul|soul]] and [[Taoist immortal|immortality]].<ref>Pope-Henessey, Chapter II. {{full citation needed|date=March 2019}}</ref> The most prominent early use was the crafting of the '''Six Ritual Jades''',<!--Linked here. Kindly leave bolded til separate article.--> found since the 3rd-millennium BC [[Liangzhu culture]]: the ''[[jade bi|bi]]'', the ''[[jade cong|cong]]'', the ''[[huang (jade)|huang]]'', the ''hu'', the ''gui'', and the ''zhang''.<ref>Pope-Henessey, Chapter IV. {{full citation needed|date=March 2019}}</ref> Although these items are so ancient that their original meaning is uncertain, by the time of the composition of the ''[[Rites of Zhou]]'', they were thought to represent the [[tian|sky]], the [[di (Chinese concept)|earth]], and the [[Four Symbols (China)|four directions]]. By the [[Han dynasty]], the royal family and prominent lords were buried entirely ensheathed in [[jade burial suits]] sewn in gold thread, on the idea that it would preserve the body and the souls attached to it. Jade was also thought to combat fatigue in the living.<ref name=fieryglo/> The Han also greatly improved prior artistic treatment of jade.<ref>{{cite book |title=Arts of China, 1600–1900 |author1=William Watson |author2=Chuimei Ho |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=lYYvsRdxsX4C&pg=PA77 |page=77 |isbn=978-0-300-10735-7 |year=2007 |publisher=Yale University Press |access-date=30 October 2017 |archive-date=22 October 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231022223518/https://books.google.com/books?id=lYYvsRdxsX4C&pg=PA77#v=onepage&q&f=false |url-status=live }}</ref> These uses gave way after the [[Three Kingdoms period]] to [[Chinese Buddhism|Buddhist]] practices and new developments in [[Taoism]] such as [[Chinese alchemy|alchemy]]. Nonetheless, jade remained part of [[traditional Chinese medicine]] and an important artistic medium. Although its use never became widespread in [[Japan]], jade became important to the art of [[Korean jade carving|Korea]] and Southeast Asia.