Editing Charles the Bold (section)

== Burgundian Wars ==

=== League of Constance ===
[[File:Deutsche Geschichte5-310.jpg|thumb|Trial of Peter von Hagenbach, 1474]]

Over the span of five years, Charle's deputy in Upper Alsace, Peter von Hagenbach, alienated his Alsatian subjects; antagonized the neighbouring Swiss Confederacy, who felt threatened by his rule; and showed aggressive intentions towards the city of [[Mulhouse]]. As a result, the Swiss sought alliances with German towns and Louis XI.{{Sfn|Smith|De Vries|2005|p=173}} By February 1473, a handful of free cities had combined to end Burgundian rule in Alsace.{{Sfn|Vaughan|Paravicini|2002|p=273}}

The cities of [[Strasbourg]], [[Colmar]], [[Basel]], and [[Sélestat]] offered money to Sigismund of Austria to buy back Alsace from Charles; but Charles was determined to keep it and refused to sell.{{Sfn|Van Loo|2021|p=429}} To emphasize his claim, Charles toured the province around Christmas 1473, reportedly with an army.{{Sfn|Vaughan|Paravicini|2002|p=276}} He tried to make peace with the Swiss, who questioned his sincerity.{{Sfn|Smith|De Vries|2005|p=174}} Charles's threats prompted the Swiss to ally themselves with their former enemy, Sigismund.{{Sfn|Van Loo|2021|p=429}}

In April 1474, the rebelling Alsatian cities and the Swiss formed the [[Lower League|League of Constance]] to drive Charles and Peter von Hagenbach from Alsace,{{Sfn|Smith|De Vries|2005|p=174}} and rebellion quickly broke out.{{Sfn|Knecht|2007|p=98}} The league overthrew Hagenbach, put him on trial, and on 9 May executed him.{{Sfn|Van Loo|2021|p=429}} Upon hearing this news, Charles was enraged. In August, he sent an army led by Peter's brother, Stefan von Hagenbach, into Alsace.{{Sfn|Simpson|Heller|2013|p=37}} After Charles refused again to give up control of Alsace, the League of Constance officially declared war on him.{{Sfn|Van Loo|2021|p=430}} Hagenbach's death might be considered the catalyst to the conflict now called the "[[Burgundian Wars]]".{{Sfn|Simpson|Heller|2013|p=37}}

=== Siege of Neuss ===
When Alsace rose up against Burgundian authority, Charles was already preoccupied with another campaign, in Cologne.{{Sfn|Van Loo|2021|p=430}} Charles aided the [[Archbishop of Cologne]], [[Ruprecht of the Palatinate (archbishop of Cologne)|Ruprecht]] against a rebellion, hoping to turn the [[Electorate of Cologne|electorate]] into a Burgundian protectorate.{{Sfn|Van Loo|2021|p=428}} He held peace talks at Maastricht on 14 May 1474, which failed. From 22 June, he planned to lay siege to Colognian cities and force Ruprecht's subjects to accept the latter's terms.{{Sfn|Williams|2014|p=22}} The first of his targets was the city of [[Neuss]], which Charles needed to control in order to guarantee Burgundian supply lines for an attack on Cologne. Neuss was expected to fall within a few days, and many contemporary historians feared its fall would open up Germany to the Burgundians.{{Sfn|Williams|2014|p=22}}

[[File:The Siege of Neuss by Charles the Bold in 1475. Museum Hof van Busleyden, Mechelen, Belgium.jpg|alt=Painting of the encampment of Charles the Bold's army outside of the walls of Neuss|thumb|321x321px|''Siege of Neuss by Charles the Bold in 1475'', by Adriaen Van den Houte]]

On 28 July 1474, Charles's army reached the southern gate of Neuss.{{Sfn|Williams|2014|p=23}} Its artillery immediately began bombardment to breach the walls.{{Sfn|Villalon|Kagay|2005|p=445}} To isolate the city, Charles assigned men to every gate, blockaded the river across Neuss with fifty boats, and secured the two isles adjacent to the city.{{Sfn|Williams|2014|pp=23–24}} Despite all attempts, communications between Neuss and the outside world continued.{{Sfn|Smith|De Vries|2005|p=48}} In September, the Burgundian night watch caught a man swimming in the river with a letter detailing Emperor Frederick's intention to attack the Burgundian besiegers.{{Sfn|Williams|2014|p=24}} Upon learning of Frederick's plan, Charles intensified the barrage, and attempted to drain the city's [[moat]] by diverting the [[Erft|River Erft]] and sinking overloaded barges into the Rhine.{{Sfn|Williams|2014|p=24}}

Residents of Neuss endured the constant bombardment, and refused to surrender even though their food had been reduced from cows to snails and weeds.{{Sfn|Van Loo|2021|p=431}} Their resistance gained admiration from all the contemporary chronicles.{{Sfn|Smith|De Vries|2005|p=180}} Emperor Frederick was slow to amass an army. When he had gathered 20,000 German forces in Spring 1475, he took seventeen days to march from Cologne to [[Zons]], their encampment.{{Sfn|Smith|De Vries|2005|p=182}} Charles was constantly petitioned by his brother-in-law, Edward IV of England, to leave the siege and join Edward in fighting the French. But in the face of the Emperor's forces, Charles did not want to withdraw and lose face.{{Sfn|Williams|2014|p=25}} The Emperor had no desire to fight the Burgundians and limited his involvement in the conflict to a few skirmishes.<ref>{{harvnb|Smith|De Vries|2005|pages=182}}; {{harvnb|Van Loo|2021|page=431}}</ref> The conflict quickly came to an end after an emissary from the Pope threatened both sides with [[excommunication]], and all parties signed a peace treaty on 29 May 1475.{{Sfn|Williams|2014|p=26}}

Charles left Neuss on 27 June.{{Sfn|Smith|De Vries|2005|p=183}} The city had been so badly damaged that it was on the verge of surrender.{{Sfn|Williams|2014|p=26}} His propagandists presented him as the Caesar of their age who had brought a humiliating defeat on the German forces. After signing the peace treaty, hundreds of German soldiers lined up to see him. According to one chronicle, many of them threw themselves at Charles and worshipped him.{{Sfn|Van Loo|2021|p=432}} However, the [[Siege of Neuss]] cost Burgundy dearly in army strength and strategic opportunities.{{Sfn|Smith|De Vries|2005|p=183}} Besides the number of men and equipment lost, this siege also cost Charles a chance to destroy Louis XI and France. Edward IV, after seeing no support from his ally, agreed to sign the [[Treaty of Picquigny]] with Louis XI; the terms of the treaty included a seven-year truce and a marriage alliance between the two kingdoms.{{Sfn|Williams|2014|p=26}} Charles had to sign a treaty with Louis as well, so that he would be free to march south and deal with the League of Constance, whose members now also included René II of Lorraine.{{Sfn|Smith|De Vries|2005|p=184}}

=== Battle of Grandson ===
{{Main|Battle of Grandson}}
[[File:Luzerner Schilling Battle of Grandson.jpg|alt=battle scene, over two pages|thumb|320x320px|[[Battle of Grandson]], miniature of 1515 by [[Diebold Schilling the Younger]] in the [[Luzerner Schilling|Lucerne chronicle]]]]

Charles commenced his full-fledged invasion against the Swiss and their allies immediately after signing the peace treaty with Louis XI. Splitting his army into two parts, he advanced through Lorraine with no resistance and captured the capital city of [[Nancy, France|Nancy]].{{Sfn|Smith|De Vries|2005|p=185}} At the beginning of 1476, Charles besieged the recently captured castle of [[Grandson, Switzerland|Grandson]] which was fortified by a garrison from [[Bern]].{{Sfn|Baboukis|2010c}} Despite the many relief forces sent to defeat the Burgundians, the Swiss were unable to relieve the city from the siege, and Charles recaptured Grandson, executing all of the Bernese garrison as retaliation for Swiss brutality in Burgundian towns.{{Sfn|Beazley|2014|p=28}} On 1 March, Charles, expecting the Swiss army to march towards him for a battle, decided to leave Grandson and head northwards for a mountain pass north of the town of [[Concise, Switzerland|Concise]]. As he had foreseen, the Swiss army marched from [[Neuchâtel]], with their vanguard, made up of eight thousand men, several hours ahead of the rest of their army. The vanguard reached the mountain pass first and surprised the Burgundian army.<ref>{{harvnb|Beazley|2014|page=28}}; {{harvnb|Baboukis|2010c}}</ref>

Charles quickly rallied his troops, ordered his artillery to fire at the enemy lines, and then launched an attack.{{Sfn|Baboukis|2010c}} Meanwhile, the Swiss had knelt down to pray, which the Burgundians may have mistaken for submission, which only motivated the Burgundians more for the attack.{{Sfn|Beazley|2014|p=29}} The initial charge, commanded by {{Ill|Louis de Châlon-Arlay|fr|Louis de Chalon-Arlay (1448-1476)}}, Lord of Grandson, failed to penetrate the Swiss defensive line, with Louis himself killed in the process.{{Sfn|Beazley|2014|p=29}} Charles then made a second attack. In order to lure the enemy further down the valley to give his artillery a better target, Charles soon retreated.{{Sfn|Van Loo|2021|p=437}}

[[File:Military flag of the Burgundian state under Duke Charles the Bold.jpg|thumb|upright=0.5| Military flag of the Burgundian State during the [[Battle of Grandson]]]]

However, the rest of Charles's army mistook his tactical retreat for a complete withdrawal. Around this time, the rest of the Swiss army had reached the valley, announcing their arrival by bellowing their horns. The Burgundians panicked and abandoned their positions, ignoring Charles's pleas to stay in line.<ref>{{harvnb|Beazley|2014|page=29}}; {{harvnb|Baboukis|2010c}}</ref> The panicking army even forsook their camp at Grandson, leaving it for the Swiss to capture.{{Sfn|Baboukis|2010c}}{{Sfn|Van Loo|2021|p=438}} The [[Battle of Grandson]] became a humiliating defeat for Charles the Bold, as his army's cowardice had caused him the loss of many valuable treasures and all of his artillery and supplies.{{Sfn|Beazley|2014|p=33}} For two or three days after the battle, Charles refused any food or drink. By 4 March, he began to reorganize his army in hopes of giving battle two weeks later.{{Sfn|Vaughan|Paravicini|2002|p=378}}

=== Battle of Morat ===
[[File:La Fuite de Charles le Téméraire.jpg|alt=Charles the Bold and his men fleeting on horses|thumb|320x320px|The flight of Charles the Bold after the [[Battle of Morat]] by [[Eugène Burnand]], 1894, now in  the Eugène Burnand Museum, [[Moudon]]]]

Charles retreated to [[Lausanne]], where he reorganised his army. He demanded more artillery and men-at-arms from his lands; in Dijon, anything made of metal was melted to make cannon; in occupied Lorraine, he confiscated all artillery.{{Sfn|Winkler|2010|p=20}}{{Efn|[[Philippe de Commines]], the Burgundian chronicler, reported that in an official decree to all his realm, Charles ordered "{{Transliteration|de|Der Meyer zu Lockie an den Grafen zu Aarburg|}}" (''all the world to come to him with all (its) cannon and all (its) manpower'').{{sfn|Winkler|2010|p=20}}}} He received funds from all his allies, and men from Italy, Germany, England, and [[History of Poland during the Jagiellonian dynasty|Poland]] came to join his army.{{Sfn|Winkler|2010|p=21}} At the end of May, he had amassed 20,000 men in Lausanne, outnumbering the local population.{{Sfn|Van Loo|2021|p=439}} He trained these men from 14 to 26 May while he himself grew sicker by the day, resulting in stagnation among his troops. With the supply lines delayed, and the payment long overdue, Charles's army had to cut costs. Many horse archers went on foot instead. The army, though magnificent in appearance, was incohesive and unstable.{{Sfn|Brunner|2011|p=47}}

On 27 May, Charles and his army began their slow march towards the fortress of [[Murten|Morat]]. His main objective was the city of Bern; to eliminate all support for the city, he first needed to conquer Morat.{{Sfn|Winkler|2010|p=21}} He arrived at Morat on 9 June and immediately besieged the fortress. By 19 June, after several assaults on the fortress and with several of its walls destroyed, Morat sent a message to Bern, asking for help.{{Sfn|Winkler|2010|pp=24–25}} On 20 June, the {{Transliteration|de|[[Eidgenossenschaft|Eidgenossen]]}} (''oath companion''{{Efn|The word {{Transliteration|de|Eidgenossen}} is literary translated as 'oath companion', and was a synonym for the Swiss, referring to the members of the Old Swiss Confederacy.{{Sfn|Vaughan|Paravicini|2002|p=263}} Until the Siege of Morat, most of the confederacy had not declared war on Burgundy, because Charles had yet to invade a territory officially part of one of its members. But during the siege, Charles attacked a bridge which was a part of Bernese territory, thus obligating the confederacy to join Bern in their campaign against Burgundy.{{Sfn|Brunner|2011|p=48}}}}) arrived at Morat.{{Sfn|Van Loo|2021|p=443}} The forces were larger than the army at Grandson; the Swiss commanders estimated themselves to be 30,000 men, while recent historians believe it was 24,000.{{Sfn|Winkler|2010|p=26}} Charles expected a decisive battle in the wake of 21 June but no attack came.{{Sfn|Van Loo|2021|p=443}} The Swiss instead attacked the following day, 22 June, a holy day attributed to the [[Ten thousand martyrs]], catching the slumbering Burgundians by surprise.{{Sfn|Winkler|2010|p=27}} Charles was too slow in organizing his troops for a counterattack: he himself tarried in putting on his armour, and before his men finished taking their positions, the Swiss army had already reached them.{{Sfn|Winkler|2010|p=29}} The Burgundian army soon abandoned their posts and fled for their lives.{{Sfn|Van Loo|2021|p=444}}

The battle was a total victory for the Swiss, and a slaughter of the fleeing Burgundian army ensued. Many retreated into [[Lake Morat]] and drowned. Some climbed the walnut trees, and were shot dead with [[arquebus]]es and [[hand cannon]]s. The Swiss showed no mercy to men who surrendered. They killed knights, soldiers, and high officials alike.{{Sfn|Winkler|2010|pp=30–31}} Charles himself fled with his men and rode for days until he reached [[Gex, Ain]].{{Sfn|Winkler|2010|p=33}} The Milanese ambassador, Panigarola, reported that Charles laughed and made jokes after his defeat at Morat. He refused to believe he was defeated and continued to think God was on his side.{{Sfn|Smith|De Vries|2005|p=197}}