Editing Charles Albert of Sardinia (section)

== Liberal sovereign (1845–1849) ==
[[File:Carlo Alberto busto.jpg|thumb|left|200px|Carlo Alberto in the Anti-Austrian period]]
[[File:Metternich (c.&nbsp;1835-40).jpg|thumb|160px|The elderly Austrian chancellor, [[Klemens von Metternich]], who requested clarification on the policy of the Kingdom of Sardinia in 1846]]
In 1845, revolutionary movements erupted in [[Rimini]] and in the [[Papal States]]. To [[Massimo d'Azeglio]], who had gone to report on the events, Charles Albert said, "that on the day of conflict with Austria, he would throw himself in with his sons, with his army, with all his substance, to fight for the independence of Italy."<ref name="bertoldi203">{{harvnb|Bertoldi|p=203}}</ref>

On 8 June 1846, on the orders of Chancellor [[Metternich]], the Austrian ambassador to Turin, [[Count Karl Ferdinand von Buol|Karl Ferdinand von Buol]], asked Charles Albert to clarify his position on whether he was with Austria or with the revolutionaries. The King of Sardinia hesitated. In the meanwhile, on 16 June, [[Pope Pius IX]] had been elected as Pope. His first order of business was to grant an amnesty to those condemned of political crimes. The new pope then protested against Austria for having occupied [[Ferrara]], in the Holy See, without its consent. Charles Albert, who saw in Pius IX a way of reconciling his loyalty with his old liberal ideas, wrote to him offering his support.<ref>{{harvnb|Bertoldi|pp=201–202}}</ref>

In the same way, in September 1847, {{ill|Cesare Trabucco|it}}, Charles Albert's secretary, was authorized to write a letter on 2 September, in which the king expressed his hope that God would grant him the power to undertake a war of independence in which he would take command of the army and the [[Guelphs and Ghibellines|Guelph]] cause. These declarations made Charles Albert far more popular. However, he continued to break up anti-Austrian demonstrations because the court and government remained divided. De La Tour, Foreign Minister [[Clemente Solaro, Count La Margherita|Solaro della Margarita]], and Archbishop {{ill|Luigi Fransoni|it}} considered the anti-Austrian policy exceptionally dangerous, but it was supported by Minister of War {{ill|Emanuele Pes di Villamarina|it}}, [[Cesare Alfieri di Sostegno]], [[Cesare Balbo]], Massimo and [[Roberto d'Azeglio]], and the young [[Camillo Benso, Count of Cavour|Count Cavour]].<ref>{{harvnb|Bertoldi|pp=202–203}}</ref>

Meanwhile, the demands of the people became pressing and were not always accepted. In this period, for example, Charles Albert did not accept a Genoese delegation which called for the expulsion of the [[Jesuits]] from the Kingdom, whom he had already banned from political writings.<ref name="bertoldi203" /> He did, however, implement the so-called [[Perfect Fusion]] of the Savoyard state on 29 November 1847, which extended the reforms carried out on the mainland to the island of Sardinia. At the beginning of 1848, news arrived that following the outbreak of the [[Spring of Nations]], [[Ferdinand II of the Two Sicilies|Ferdinand II]] had granted a constitution in the [[Kingdom of the Two Sicilies]]. In Turin there were acclamations for the King of Naples and the Pope, while Charles Albert remained bound by the oath he had sworn to Charles Felix to respect religiously all the fundamental laws of the monarchy, and to retain absolutist rule.<ref>{{harvnb|Bertoldi|pp=203–204}}</ref>

=== Albertine Statute ===
{{main|Statuto Albertino}}
[[File:Statuto Albertino Avviso.jpg|upright|thumb|left|Edict of 8 February 1848 which informed the public of the concession of the Statute and outlined its contents in 14 articles]]
[[File:Carlo Alberto firma lo Statuto.jpg|thumb|Charles Albert signs the Statute on 8 March 1848]]
[[File:Festeggiamenti Statuto Albertino.jpg|thumb|Celebrations in the Piazza San Carlo in Turin at the proclamation of the Albertine Statute in a contemporary print]]
On 7 January 1848, at the hotel ''Europa'' in Turin, there was a meeting of the city's journalists at which Cavour, director of the ''Risorgimento'', proposed to request a constitution from the king. The majority of the ministers were also in favour of the concession of a constitution, and of ensuring that one was not imposed by the people. Charles Albert was not sure what to do, unwilling to make the wrong decision and considered abdicating as Victor Emmanuel I had in similar circumstances. He sent for his son to prepare him for the succession, but his son managed to convince him to retain his position.<ref>{{harvnb|Bertoldi|pp=204–206}}</ref>

On 7 February, an extraordinary Council of State was convented. Seven ministers, the holders of the [[Supreme Order of the Most Holy Annunciation|order of the Annunciation]], and other high dignitaries were present. All of them spoke and the discussion went on for many hours. Charles Albert, pale, listened in silence. De La Tour, {{ill|Carlo Giuseppe Beraudo di Pralormo|it}}, and {{ill|Luigi Provana di Collegno|it}} were opposed to the constitution. During the lunch break, Charles Albert received a delegation from the capital, which asked for the constitution for the good of the people and in order to safeguard order.<ref>{{harvnb|Bertoldi|pp=206–207}}</ref>

It was now necessary to make a decision and, at last, Giacinto Borelli, Minister of the Interior, was appointed to draft the Constitution immediately. The document was approved and was named the "Statute." Charles Albert had stated that he would not approve the document if it did not clearly state the pre-eminent position of the Catholic religion and the honour of the monarchy. Since he had received these things, he approved it. The meeting was dissolved at dawn.<ref>{{harvnb|Bertoldi|p=208}}</ref>

Around 3:30 in the afternoon on 8 February, a royal edict was published in the streets of Turin, which laid out the 14 articles which formed the basis of the Statute for a system of representative government. By 6:00 pm, the city was entirely lit up and massive demonstrations in favour of Charles Albert were held.<ref>{{harvnb|Comandini, II|p=1374}}</ref>

The edict specified that the Catholic faith was the sole state religion, and that executive power belonged to the king, as did command of the armed forces. Legislative power was vested in two chambers, one of which would be elected. The free press and individual liberty were guaranteed. The full version of the Statute, with all its articles, was finally agreed on 4 March 1848 and approved the same day by Charles Albert. The announcement of the Statute was met with great enthusiasm throughout Piedmont. The first constitutional government, presided over by [[Cesare Balbo]], was sworn in on 16 March 1848, two days before the beginning of the [[Five Days of Milan]].<ref>{{harvnb|Bertoldi|pp=208–210}}</ref>

=== Spring of Nations ===
{{main|Revolutions of 1848}}
[[File:Carlo Alberto ritratto equestre.jpg|thumb|left|200px|Charles decided to adhere to the idea of a united Italian federation under the influence of the Pope.]]
[[File:Italia 1843.svg|thumb|Italy in 1843, during Charles Albert's reign]]
Elected in 1846, the new pope [[Pius IX]] had caught the imagination of the liberals of Italy when he began to dismantle the archaic Vatican institutions: granting a free press, instituting the civic guard in place of foreign mercenaries, and creating a council of ministers. On 12 January 1848, there was a revolt in [[Palermo]] and King Ferdinand II of the Two Sicilies was forced to concede a constitution, but all of Europe was further convulsed when, in February 1848, there was a [[French Revolution of 1848|Revolution in France]], King Louis Philippe was deposed, and a [[French Second Republic|Republic]] was established. The revolution spread to Milan on 18 March, then to Venice, and finally to Vienna, where riots forced Metternich to flee and the abdication of Emperor [[Ferdinand I of Austria|Ferdinand I]].<ref>{{harvnb|Bertoldi|pp=225–227}}</ref>

In Milan, it was expected that Charles Albert would take the opportunity to declare war on Austria. A clear message from Turin was delivered by the Milanese liberal, {{ill|Francesco Arese Lucini (senator)|it|Francesco Arese Lucini (senatore)|lt=Francesco Arese Lucini}} on 19/20 March:
{{blockquote|You may be assured, sirs, that I am giving every possible provision: that I burn with desire to bring to your aid all that is in my power and that I will grasp even the smallest pretext that presents itself.<ref>{{harvnb|Bertoldi|p=228}}</ref>}}

Although the Kingdom's resources were small, the Piedmontese army began to mobilize. The majority of the troops were deployed on the western border since the eastern border was safeguarded by the treaty of alliance with Austria. But Charles Albert realised that this was a unique opportunity to expand his holdings into Lombardy. Thus he told the Milanese that he would intervene on their behalf if they agreed to join the Kingdom of Sardinia.<ref>{{harvnb|Bertoldi|p=229}}</ref>

On 23 March 1848, the Piedmontese embassy to Milan returned to Turin with news that the Austrians had been forced to evacuate the city and that a provisional government headed by [[Gabrio Casati]] had been established, which asked Charles Albert to become an ally. Clearly not very enthusiastic about the idea of annexation, the Milanese asked the king to keep his troops outside the city and to adopt the [[Flag of Italy|tricolour]] of the [[Cisalpine Republic]] as his flag.<ref>{{harvnb|Bertoldi|pp=229–230}}</ref> Although he had received no guarantee that the Milanese would agree to annexation, Charles Albert accepted the conditions of the Milanese and asked only that the flag of the house of Savoy be placed in the middle of the tricolour (This would henceforth be the flag of the Kingdom of Sardinia and then the Kingdom of Italy until the fall of the monarchy in 1946). He was about to enter into a war with a major power, whose troops in Italy were commanded by one of the greatest living generals, [[Joseph Radetzky von Radetz]]. His reactionary past forgotten, the king appeared on the balcony of the royal palace, flanked by the Milanese representatives, waving the tricolour, while the people applauded and shouted, "Long live Italy! Long live Charles Albert. Within a year his reign would be over.<ref>{{harvnb|Bertoldi|pp=230–231}}</ref>

=== First Italian War of Independence ===
{{main|First Italian War of Independence}}
{{See also|Revolutions of 1848 in the Italian states}}
[[File:Matania Edoardo - Ritratto giovanile di Carlo Cattaneo - xilografia - 1887.jpg|thumb|150px|The Milanese [[Carlo Cattaneo]] criticized Charles Albert's tardiness in deciding to enter the war.]]
On 23 March 1848, the proclamation of Charles Albert to the people of Lombardy and Veneto was published, in which he assured them that the Piedmontese troops, "... go now to offer, in the final trials, that help which a brother expects from a brother, a friend from a friend. We will comply with your just requests, trusting in the aid of God, who is clearly with us, of God, who has given Italy Pius IX, of God, whose miraculous prompting places Italy in the position to act for itself." Thus, the war began.<ref>Denis Mack Smith, ''Il Risorgimento italiano'', Roma-Bari, Laterza, 2011, p. 205.</ref> The federalist [[Carlo Cattaneo]] was not impressed, "Now that the enemy is in flight, the king wants to come with the whole army. He should have sent us anything − even a single cart of powder − three days ago. There was heard, in Piedmont, for five days, the thundering of the guns which consumed us: The king knew and did not move."<ref>{{harvnb|Bertoldi|p=233}}</ref>

==== Initial campaign ====
[[File:Stanislao Grimaldi Dal Poggetto - battaglia di Pastrengo -litografia -ca.1860.JPG|thumb|left|Charles Albert (with the spyglass) and the Piedmontese commanders at the [[Skirmish of Pastrengo (1848)|Battle of Pastrengo]]]]
Charles Albert left Turin on the evening of 26 March 1848 for Alessandria, to take command of the army and then advanced to [[Voghera]]. He was preoccupied with the delay of the provisional government of Milan's acceptance of annexation by the Kingdom of Sardinia. The Austrians however had regrouped on the River [[Mincio]], at one corner of the [[Quadrilatero]]. On 29 March, the king entered [[Pavia]] in triumph, where he was met by some envoys of the Milanese government. On 2 April, Charles Albert was in [[Cremona]], on 5 April at [[Bozzolo]], on 6 April at [[Asola, Lombardy|Asola]], on 8 April at [[Castiglione delle Stiviere]], and on 11 April at [[Volta Mantovana]], only four kilometres from the Mincio. After nearly two weeks, he had made it to the front.<ref>{{harvnb|Bertoldi|pp=234–236}}</ref>

At the opening of hostilities, on 8 and 9 April, Italian sharpshooters had achieved success in the first battle of the campaign at the [[Battle of Goito]]. After crossing the Mincio with his army, Charles Albert achieved another victory on 30 April at [[Skirmish of Pastrengo (1848)|Pastrengo]], where he saw the front lines. The units under his command attacked some Austrians who had been dispersed by a charge of the carabinieri on horseback. On 2 May, in the midst of this triumphant atmosphere, news arrived that Pius IX had withdrawn his military and political support for the Italian cause.

Nevertheless, the Papal soldiers in the army did not withdraw, choosing to remain to fight as volunteers, but Charles Albert had lost the moral justification for his mission. His dream of becoming the sword of the papacy and king of an Italy united under the Pope, as [[Vincenzo Gioberti]] had proposed, was thwarted.<ref>{{harvnb|Bertoldi|p=237}}</ref> Yet the king was undiscouraged and continued to advance towards Verona, where a harsh and indecisive battle was fought with the Austrians at [[Battle of Santa Lucia|Santa Lucia]] on 6 May.

Two further events followed in the next few days. On 21 May, the contingent of 14,000 men from the Neapolitan army which were ''en route'' to fight against the Austrians, were ordered by Ferdinand II to return home in light of Pius IX's decision. Then on 25 May, the Austrian reinforcements which had been traveling through Veneto, joined Radetzky's troops at Verona. Charles Albert was ambitious but had only modest strategic abilities and he could not realistically continue the war alone. The [[Battle of Goito]] and the surrender of Peschiera on 30 May were his last successes. The Austrians conquered [[Vicenza]] on 10 June, dispersing the Papal volunteers and finally obtained a decisive victory over the Piedmontese in the [[Battle of Custoza (1848)|Battle of Custoza]], which lasted from the 22 to 27 July.

In the meantime, on 8 June, the Milanese and Lombards had voted with an overwhelming majority to join the Kingdom of Sardinia, as had the citizens of the [[Duchy of Parma]] on 2 May. But for Charles Albert, things were going sour: the soldiers were angry about the recent defeat and were hungry and exhausted. A council of war suggested seeking a truce.<ref>{{harvnb|Bertoldi|p=240}}</ref>

==== Events in Milan and armistice of Salasco ====
[[File:Carlo-Alberto-dal-balcone-di-casa-Greppi-1848.jpg|thumb|left|upright|Charles Albert on the balcony of the Palazzo Greppi in Milan on 5 August 1848, attempting to calm forces opposed to the surrender of the city; painting by [[Carlo Bossoli]].]]
[[File:Bandiera 1848 Milano a Carlo Alberto.jpg|thumb|Flag donated by the women of Milan in the summer of 1848. Displayed in the [[Royal Armoury of Turin]].]]
On the evening of 27 July 1848, the Austrians agreed to grant a truce if the Piedmontese withdrew to the west bank of the [[Adda (river)|Adda]] (a little more than 20&nbsp;km east of Milan), surrendered all the fortresses, including [[Peschiera del Garda|Peschiera]] and yielded the Duchies of Parma and Modena, whose rulers had been forced into exile. Charles Albert, who disagreed with his son Victor Emmanuel on the conduct of the war, exclaimed "I would rather die!" and prepared to make a stand at the [[Oglio]] (about 25&nbsp;km further east than requested by Radetzky).<ref>{{harvnb|Bertoldi|pp=240–241}}</ref>

Although the Austrian proposal had been rejected, his troops ended up having to withdraw to the Adda river anyway, because the Oglio river was held to be an inadequate defensive line. At the river Adda, some manoeuvres taken by a general on his own initiative left a division isolated and made it necessary to withdraw again, in order to retreat inside the walls of Milan. Charles Albert went to the {{ill|Palazzo Greppi|it}}, ignoring the Milanese desire to resist, he negotiated the surrender of the city to the Austrians in exchange for permitting the safe withdrawal of the army to Piedmont.

The next day, the Milanese learned of the agreement and revealed their fury. The crowd protested in front of the Palazzo Greppi and when the King came out on the balcony, they fired their rifles at him. According to the noblewoman [[Cristina Trivulzio di Belgiojoso]], who participated actively in the riots in Milan:
{{blockquote|A contingent of the national guard went up to interrogate Charles Albert on the reason for the surrender. He turned them away, but was forced despite himself to follow some deputies onto the balcony, from which he spoke to the people, apologizing for his ignorance of the true feelings of the Milanese, saying that he was delighted that they came to the defence so quickly, and solemnly promising to strive for them with his last drop of blood. A round from a rifle was fired against Charles Albert. At the final words of his speech, the indignant crowd shouted "If you're so wounded from surrendering!" Then the king took a piece of paper from his pocket, which he held up for the people to see, and ripped it to pieces.<ref>Cfr. C. Belgioioso, ''La rivoluzione lombarda del 1848'' a cura di A. Bandini Buti, Universale Economica, Milano, 1950</ref>}} Charles Albert's second son [[Prince Ferdinando, Duke of Genoa (1822–1855)|Ferdinand]] and general [[Alfonso Ferrero La Marmora]] carried the king to safety. In the night he departed from Milan with the army.<ref>{{harvnb|Comandini, II|p=1518}}</ref> On 8 August, general {{ill|Carlo Canera di Salasco|it}} returned to Milan and negotiated an armistice with the Austrians, known as the Armistice of Salasco, which was signed on 9 August. Charles Albert ratified the armistice despite some opposition, including from Gioberti, who remained confident of aid from France. The king said that the former French foreign minister, [[Alphonse de Lamartine]], had declared that the French would only give such aid to Republicans.<ref>{{harvnb|Bertoldi|p=244}}</ref>

==== Second campaign and abdication ====
{{see also|Battle of Novara (1849)}}
[[File:Carlo Alberto Museo Risorgimento Roma.jpg|thumb|upright|left|Charles Albert reopened hostilities with Austria on 20 March 1849, but the second campaign lasted only four days.]]
[[File:The abdication of Charles Albert in favour of Victor Emmanuel.jpg|thumb|upright|Charles Albert abdicates in favour of his son Victor Emmanuel]]
The king was not proud of the campaign and, once he had written a record of the first campaign,<ref>''Memorie ed osservazioni sulla guerra dell'indipendenza d'Italia, raccolte da un ufficiale piemontese'', Stamperia Reale, Torino, 1848. Published anonymously, the book was immediately pulled from circulation at the request of the new minister of war, [[Giuseppe Dabormida]] who perceived that they would provide fuel for future controversies. The volume sought to demonstrate the bravery of the king, his sons, and the troops, but said almost nothing about the responsibilities of the military commanders.</ref> Charles Albert decided to break the armistice. On 1 March, at the inauguration of the legislature, he spoke clearly about war and [[Chamber of Deputies (Kingdom of Sardinia)|Chamber]] responded positively. For the imminent resumption of hostilities, the king was convinced to renounce effective command of the army, which he continued to hold formally. Rather than appointing a Piedmontese general, he selected the Polish general [[Wojciech Chrzanowski]] as commander of the army. On 8 March, the council of war in Turin decided that the armistice would be broken on the 12th. According to the terms of the armistice, hostilities would then begin eight days later on 20 March.<ref>{{harvnb|Bertoldi|pp=245–247}}</ref>

The war did indeed resume on that day. On 22 March, Charles Albert arrived at [[Novara]] and a day later, Radetzy attacked the city from the south with superior numbers, near the village of [[Battle of Novara (1849)|Bicocca]]. Chrzanowski made some significant tactical errors and despite the bravery of the Piedmontese and Charles Albert himself, who fought along with his son Ferdinand in the front lines, the Battle of Novara proved a disastrous defeat.

Returning to the Palazzo Bellini in Novara, the king declared, "Bicocca was lost and retaken three or four times, before our troops were forced to yield... the Major General [Chrzanowski] employed all his strength, my sons did everything they could, the Duke of Genoa [Ferdinand] lost two horses from under himself. Now we have withdrawn within the city, on its walls, with the enemy below, with an exhausted army – further resistance is impossible. It is necessary to request an armistice."<ref>{{harvnb|Bertoldi|p=250}}</ref>

Austria's conditions were very harsh: occupation of the [[Lomellina]] and the fortress of Alessandria, as well as the surrender of all the Lombards who had fought against Austria. Charles Albert asked the generals if it was possible for a final push to open a path to Alessandria. They said it was not: the army was in pieces, discipline had crumbled, many soldiers fighting in the campaign were despoiling the houses in the countryside and they feared an attack on the king himself.<ref>{{harvnb|Bertoldi|p=251}}</ref>

At 9:30 pm on the same day, Charles Albert summoned his sons, Chrzanowski, generals [[Alessandro Ferrero La Marmora]], {{ill|Carlo Emanuele La Marmora|it}}, [[Giovanni Durando]], {{ill|Luigi Fecia di Cossato|it}} (who had negotiated the armistice) and minister [[Carlo Cadorna]]. He confessed that he had no choice but to abdicate. They tried to dissuade him, but, in the hope that Victor Emmanuel could get better terms, he ended the discussion, "My decision is the fruit of mature reflection. From this moment, I am no longer the king; the king is Victor, my son."<ref>{{harvnb|Bertoldi|pp=251–252}}</ref>