Editing Charlemagne (section)

==Legacy==
===Political legacy===
[[File:Vertrag von Verdun en.svg|right|upright=1.3|thumb|alt=A colour-coded map|Partition of the Carolingian Empire after the 843 Treaty of Verdun]]
The stability and peace of Charlemagne's reign did not long outlive him. Louis' reign was marked by strife, including a number of rebellions by his sons. After Louis' death, the empire was divided among his sons into [[West Francia|West]], [[East Francia|East]], and [[Middle Francia]] by the [[Treaty of Verdun]].{{sfn|Costambeys|Innes|MacLean|2011|pp=379–381}} Middle Francia was divided several more times over the course of subsequent generations.{{sfn|Costambeys|Innes|MacLean|2011|p=394}} Carolingians would rule{{snd}}with some interruptions{{snd}}in East Francia (later the [[Kingdom of Germany]]) until 911,{{sfn|Heather|2009|p=368}} and in West Francia (which would become [[Kingdom of France|France]]) until 987.{{sfn|Riché|1993|p=278}} After 887, the imperial title was held sporadically by a series of non-dynastic Italian rulers{{sfn|Costambeys|Innes|MacLean|2011|pp=424–427}} before it lapsed in 924.{{sfn|Arnold|1997|p=83}} The East Frankish king [[Otto the Great]] conquered [[Kingdom of Italy (Holy Roman Empire)|Italy]], and was crowned emperor in 962.{{sfn|Heather|2009|p=369}}  By this time, the eastern and western parts of Charlemagne's former empire had already developed distinct languages and cultures.{{sfn|Scales|2012|pp=155–182}} Otto founded (or re-established) the Holy Roman Empire, which would last until its [[Dissolution of the Holy Roman Empire|dissolution]] in 1806, during the [[Napoleonic Wars]].{{sfn|Davies|1996|pp=316–317}}

According to historian Jennifer Davis, Charlemagne "invented medieval rulership" and his influence can be seen at least into the nineteenth century.{{sfn|Davis|2015|p=434}} Charlemagne is often known as "the father of Europe" because of the influence of his reign and the legacy he left across the large area of the continent.{{sfn|Freeman|2017|p=19}} The political structures he established remained in place through his Carolingian successors, and continued to exert influence into the eleventh century.{{sfn|Costambeys|Innes|MacLean|2011|pp=407, 432}}

Charlemagne was an ancestor of several European ruling houses, including the [[Capetian dynasty]],{{efn|Through [[Beatrice of Vermandois]], great-great granddaughter of [[Pepin of Italy]] and grandmother of [[Hugh Capet]],{{sfn|Lewis|1977|pp=246–247, n 94}} }} the [[Ottonian dynasty]],{{efn|Through [[Hedwiga]], great-great granddaughter of [[Louis the Pious]] and mother of [[Henry the Fowler]]{{sfn|Jackman|2010|pp=9–12}} }} the [[House of Luxembourg]],{{Efn|Through [[Albert II, Count of Namur]], great-grandson of [[Louis IV of France]] and great-great-grandfather of [[Henry the Blind]]{{sfn|Tanner|2004|pp=263–265}} }} and the [[House of Ivrea]].{{Efn|[[Berengar II of Italy]] was a great-great-great grandson of [[Louis the Pious]].{{sfn|Bouchard|2010|pp=129–131}} The House of Ivrea later came to rule Spain and intermarried with the [[Habsburgs]] and the royal families of Portugal.}} The Ottonians and Capetians, direct successors of the Carolingans, drew on the legacy of Charlemagne to bolster their legitimacy and prestige; the Ottonians and their successors held their German coronations in Aachen through the Middle Ages.{{sfn|Fried|2016|p=528}} The marriage of [[Philip II of France]] to [[Isabella of Hainault]] (a direct descendant of Charlemagne) was seen as a sign of increased legitimacy for their son, [[Louis VIII]], and the French kings' association with Charlemagne's legacy was stressed until the monarchy's end.{{sfn|Fried|2016|pp=527–528}} German and French rulers, such as Frederick Barbarossa and [[Napoleon]], cited the influence of Charlemagne and associated themselves with him.{{sfn|Davis|2015|p=433}} Both German and French monarchs considered themselves as successors of Charlemagne, enumerating him as "Charles I" in their regnal lists.{{sfn|Williams|1885|pp=446–47}}

The city of Aachen has, since 1949, awarded an international prize (the [[Charlemagne Prize|Karlspreis]] der Stadt Aachen) in honour of Charlemagne. It is awarded annually to those who promote European unity.{{sfn|Davis|2015|p=433}} Recipients of the prize include [[Richard von Coudenhove-Kalergi]] (founder of the pan-European movement), [[Alcide De Gasperi]], and [[Winston Churchill]].<ref>{{cite web | url=https://www.karlspreis.de/en/laureates | title=Laureates }}</ref>

===Carolingian Renaissance===
Contacts with the wider Mediterranean world through Spain and Italy, the influx of foreign scholars at court, and the relative stability and length of Charlemagne's reign led to a cultural revival known as the [[Carolingian Renaissance]].{{sfn|Contreni|1984|p=60}} Although the beginnings of this revival can be seen under his predecessors, Charles Martel and Pepin, Charlemagne took an active and direct role in shaping intellectual life which led to the revival's zenith.{{sfn|Contreni|1984|pp=59, 61, 64}} Charlemagne promoted learning as a matter of policy and direct patronage, with the aim of creating a more effective clergy.{{sfn|Contreni|1995|p=709}} The ''[[Admonitio generalis]]'' and ''Epistola de litteris colendis'' outlined his policies and aims for education.{{sfn|Contreni|1984|p=64}}

Intellectual life at court was dominated by Irish, Anglo-Saxon, Visigothic and Italian scholars, including [[Dungal of Bobbio]], [[Alcuin|Alcuin of York]], [[Theodulf of Orléans]], and [[Peter of Pisa]]; Franks such as Einhard and [[Angelbert]] also made substantial contributions.{{sfn|Contreni|1984|pp=61, 68}} Aside from the intellectual activity at the palace, Charlemagne promoted ecclesiastical schools and publicly funded schools for the children of the elite and future clergy.{{sfn|Contreni|1984|pp=65-66}} Students learned basic Latin literacy and grammar, arithmetic, and other subjects of the medieval liberal arts.{{sfn|Contreni|1984|pp=66–67}} From their education, it was expected that even rural priests could provide their parishioners with basic instruction in religious matters and (possibly) the literacy required for worship.{{sfn|Contreni|1995|p=715}} Latin was standardised and its use brought into territories well beyond the former Roman Empire, forming a second language community of speakers and writers and sustaining Latin creativity in the Middle Ages.{{sfn|Leonhardt|2016|pp=160–162}}

Carolingian authors produced extensive works, including legal treatises, histories, poetry, and religious texts.{{sfn|Contreni|1995|pp=748–756}}{{sfn|Contreni|1984|pp=70}} [[Scriptorium|Scriptoria]] in monasteries and cathedrals focused on copying new and old works, producing an estimated 90,000 manuscripts during the ninth century.{{sfn|Contreni|1995|p=711}} The [[Carolingian minuscule]] script was developed and popularised in medieval copying, influencing [[Renaissance]] and modern typefaces.{{sfn|Contreni|1984|p=73}} Scholar John J. Contreni considers the educational and learning revival under Charlemagne and his successors "one of the most durable and resilient elements of the Carolingian legacy".{{sfn|Contreni|1984|p=73}}

===Memory and historiography===
Charlemagne was a frequent subject of, and inspiration for, medieval writers after his death. Einhard's ''[[Vita Karoli Magni]]'', according to Johannes Fired, "can be said to have revived the defunct literary genre of the secular biography."{{sfn|Fried|2016|p=277}} Einhard drew on classical sources, such as Suetonius' ''The Twelve Caesars'', the orations of Cicero, and [[Tacitus]]' ''[[Agricola (book)|Agricola]]'' to frame his work's structure and style.{{sfn|McKitterick|2008|pp=15–20}} The Carolingian period also saw a revival of the [[mirrors for princes]] genre.{{sfn|Fried|2016|pp=518–519}} The author of the Latin poem ''[[Visio Karoli Magni]]'', written {{circa|865}}, uses facts (apparently from Einhard) and his own observations on the decline of Charlemagne's family after their civil wars later in the ninth century as the bases of a visionary tale about Charles meeting a prophetic spectre in a dream.{{sfn|Geary|1987|pp=275–283}} [[Notker the Stammerer|Notker]]'s ''Gesta Karoli Magni'', written for Charlemagne's great-grandson Charles the Fat, presents moral anecdotes (''[[exempla]]'') to highlight the emperor's qualities as a ruler.{{sfn|McKitterick|2008|p=20}}

[[File:Manfred III of Saluzzo as Charlemagne.jpg|thumb|upright=.7|alt=Painting of an Italian nobleman reminiscent of Charlemagne|[[Manfred III of Saluzzo]] depicted as Charlemagne ([[Castello della Manta]], 1420s)]]
Charlemagne, as a figure of myth and emulation, grew over the centuries; Matthias Becher writes that over 1,000 legends are recorded about him, far outstripping subsequent emperors and kings.{{sfn|Becher|2005|p=138}} Later medieval writers depicted Charlemagne as a crusader and Christian warrior.{{sfn|Becher|2005|p=138}}{{sfn|Fried|2016|p=539}} Charlemagne is the main figure of the medieval [[literary cycle]] known as the [[Matter of France]]. Works in this cycle, which originated during the [[Crusades]], centre on characterisations of the emperor as a leader of Christian knights in wars against Muslims. The cycle includes {{lang|fr|[[Chanson de geste|chansons de geste]]}} (epic poems) such as the ''[[Song of Roland]]'' and chronicles such as the ''[[Historia Caroli Magni]]'', also known as the ''(Pseudo-)Turpin Chronicle''.{{sfn|Hardman|Ailes|2017|pp=1–9}} Charlemagne was depicted as one of the [[Nine Worthies]], a fixture in medieval literature and art as an exemplar of a Christian king.{{sfn|Kuskin|1999|pp=513, 547–548 fn24}} Despite his central role in these legends, author [[Thomas Bulfinch]] noted that "romancers represent him as often weak and passionate, the victim of treacherous counsellors, and at the mercy of turbulent barons, on whose prowess he depends for the maintenance of his throne."{{sfn|Bulfinch|1864|pp=xxii–xxiv}}

Attention to Charlemagne became more scholarly in the early modern period as Eindhard's ''Vita'' and other sources began to be published.{{sfn|Becher|2005|p=142–144}} Political philosophers debated his legacy; [[Montesquieu]] viewed him as the first constitutional monarch and protector of freemen, but [[Voltaire]] saw him as a despotic ruler and representative of the medieval period as a [[Dark Ages (historiography)|Dark Age]].{{sfn|Becher|2005|p=144}} As early as the sixteenth century, debate between German and French writers began about Charlemagne's "nationality".{{sfn|Becher|2005|p=142}} These contrasting portraits—a French Charlemagne versus a German ''Karl der Große''—became especially pronounced during the nineteenth century with Napoleon's use of Charlemagne's legacy and the rise of German nationalism.{{sfn|Fried|2016|p=539}}{{sfn|Becher|2005|p=146}} German historiography and popular perception focused on the [[Massacre of Verden]], emphasised with Charlemagne as the "butcher" of the Germanic Saxons or downplayed as an unfortunate part of the legacy of a great German ruler.{{sfn|Becher|2005|pp=146–148}} [[Propaganda in Nazi Germany]] initially portrayed Charlemagne as an enemy of Germany, a French ruler who worked to take away the freedom and native religion of the German people.{{sfn|Fried|2016|p=541–542}} This quickly shifted as [[Adolf Hitler]] endorsed a portrait of Charlemagne as a great unifier of disparate German tribes into a common nation, allowing Hitler to co-opt Charlemagne's legacy as an ideological model for his expansionist policies.{{sfn|Fried|2016|pp=542–546}}

Historiography after World War II focused on Charlemagne as "the father of Europe" rather than a nationalistic figure,{{sfn|Becher|2005|p=148}} a view first advanced during the nineteenth century by German romantic philosopher [[Friedrich Schlegel]].{{sfn|Fried|2016|p=539}} This view has led to Charlemagne's adoption as a political symbol of [[European integration]].{{sfn|Fried|2016|p=548}} Modern historians increasingly place Charlemagne in the context of the wider Mediterranean world, following the work of Henri Pirenne.{{sfn|Fried|2016|pp=549–551}}

===Religious influence and veneration===
{{further|Charlemagne and church music}}
[[File:Aix dom int vue cote.jpg|thumb|alt=Interior of a large chapel|The [[Palatine Chapel, Aachen|Palatine Chapel]], built by Charlemagne at the Aachen palace]]
Charlemagne gave much attention to religious and ecclesiastical affairs, holding 23 [[synod]]s during his reign. His synods were called to address specific issues at particular times, but generally dealt with church administration and organisation, education of the clergy, and the proper forms of liturgy and worship.{{sfn|Noble|2015|p=294}} Charlemagne used the Christian faith as a unifying factor in the realm and, in turn, worked to impose unity on the church.{{sfn|Noble|2015|pp=289–290, 295–296}}{{sfn|McKitterick|1996|p=61}} He implemented an edited version of the ''[[Jus antiquum#Dionysio-Hadriana|Dionysio-Hadriana]]'' book of [[canon law]] acquired from Pope Adrian, required use of the [[Rule of St. Benedict]] in monasteries throughout the empire, and promoted a standardised liturgy adapted from the [[Roman Rite|rites of the Roman Church]] to conform with Frankish practices.{{sfn|Noble|2015|pp=269–297}} Carolingian policies promoting unity did not eliminate the diverse practices throughout the empire, but created a shared ecclesiastical identity—according to Rosamond McKitterick, "unison, not unity."{{sfn|McKitterick|1996|p=82}}

The condition of all his subjects as a "Christian people" was an important concern.{{sfn|Noble|2015|pp=287–288}} Charlemagne's policies encouraged preaching to the laity, particularly in [[vernacular]] languages they would understand.{{sfn|Noble|2015|p=294–295}} He believed it essential to be able to recite the [[Lord's Prayer]] and the [[Apostles' Creed]], and made efforts to ensure that the clergy taught them and other basics of Christian morality.{{sfn|Noble|2015|pp=301–302}}

Thomas{{nbsp}}F.{{nbsp}}X.{{nbsp}}Noble writes that the efforts of Charlemagne and his successors to standardise Christian doctrine and practices and harmonise Frankish practices were essential steps in the development of Christianity in Europe, and the Roman Catholic or [[Latin Church]] "as a historical phenomenon, not as a theological or ecclesiological one, is a Carolingian construction."{{sfn|Noble|2015|p=287}}{{sfn|Noble|2015|pp=306–307}} He says that the medieval European concept of [[Christendom]] as an overarching community of Western Christians, rather than a collection of local traditions, is the result of Carolingian policies and ideology.{{sfn|Noble|2015|pp=292, 306–307}} Charlemagne's doctrinal policies promoting the use of {{lang|la|filioque}} and opposing the Second Council of Nicea were key steps in the [[East–West Schism|growing divide between Western and Eastern Christianity]].{{sfn|Siecienski|2010|p=87}}

Emperor [[Otto III, Holy Roman Emperor|Otto III]] attempted to have Charlemagne [[Canonization|canonised]] in 1000.{{sfn|Fried|2016|p=537}} In 1165, Frederick Barbarossa persuaded [[Antipope Paschal III]] to elevate Charlemagne to sainthood.{{sfn|Fried|2016|p=537}} Since Paschal's acts were not considered valid, Charlemagne was not recognised as a saint by the [[Holy See]].{{sfn|Becher|2005|p=143}} Despite this lack of official recognition, his [[Cult (religious practice)|cult]] was observed in Aachen, Reims, Frankfurt, Zurich and Regensburg, and he has been venerated in France since the reign of [[Charles V of France|Charles V]].{{sfn|Fried|2016|p=538}}

Charlemagne also drew attention from figures of the Protestant [[Reformation]], with [[Martin Luther]] criticising his apparent subjugation to the papacy by accepting his coronation from Leo.{{sfn|Becher|2005|p=144}} [[John Calvin]] and other Protestant thinkers viewed him as a forerunner of the Reformation, however, noting the ''Libri Carolini''{{'s}} condemnation of the worship of images and relics and conflicts by Charlemagne and his successors with the temporal power of the popes.{{sfn|Becher|2005|p=143}}