Editing Celts (section)

==Society==
[[File:10 2023 - Palazzo Altemps, Roma, Lazio, 00186, Italia - Galata suicida (Ludovisi Gaul) - Arte Ellenistica Greca - Copia Romana - Photo Paolo Villa FO232046 ombre gimp bis.jpg|thumb|upright=1.0|The [[Ludovisi Gaul]], [[Roman sculpture|Roman]] copy of a [[Hellenistic art|Hellenistic]] sculpture of a dying Celtic couple, [[Palazzo Massimo alle Terme]].]]
To the extent that sources are available, they depict a pre-Christian [[Iron Age]] Celtic [[social structure]] based formally on class and kingship, although this may only have been a particular late phase of organisation in Celtic societies. Patron-client relationships similar to those of Roman society are also described by Caesar and others in the Gaul of the 1st century BC.{{Citation needed|date=April 2022}}

In the main, the evidence is of tribes being led by kings, although some argue that there is also evidence of [[oligarchy|oligarchical]] republican [[form of government|forms of government]] eventually emerging in areas which had close contact with Rome. Most descriptions of Celtic societies portray them as being divided into three groups: a warrior aristocracy; an intellectual class including professions such as [[druid]], poet, and jurist; and everyone else. In historical times, the offices of high and low kings in Ireland and Scotland were filled by election under the system of [[tanistry]], which eventually came into conflict with the feudal principle of [[primogeniture]] in which succession goes to the first-born son.{{Citation needed|date=April 2022}}

[[File:Romano-Celtic mirror (Desborough).jpg|thumb|The reverse side of the [[Desborough Mirror]], with spiral and trumpet motifs typical of La Tène Celtic art in Britain]]
[[File:Ring MET tr409-1-2009s08.jpg|thumb|A 4th century BC Celtic gold ring from southern Germany, decorated with human and rams heads]]

Little is known of family structure among the Celts. Patterns of settlement varied from decentralised to urban. The popular stereotype of non-urbanised societies settled in [[hillfort]]s and [[Dun (fortification)|duns]],<ref>"[http://www.smr.herefordshire.gov.uk/hist_periods/iron_age.htm The Iron Age]". Smr.herefordshire.gov.uk. {{webarchive |url= https://web.archive.org/web/20090207021902/http://www.smr.herefordshire.gov.uk/hist_periods/iron_age.htm |date=7 February 2009 }}</ref> drawn from Britain and Ireland (there are about 3,000 [[List of hill forts in England|hill forts]] known in Britain)<ref>''[https://books.google.com/books?id=LspvFOZQTakC&pg=PA56 The Landscape of Britain]''. Reed, Michael (1997). [[CRC Press]]. p. 56. {{ISBN|0-203-44411-6}}</ref> contrasts with the urban settlements present in the core Hallstatt and La Tène areas, with the many significant ''[[oppida]]'' of Gaul late in the first millennium BC, and with the towns of [[Cisalpine Gaul|Gallia Cisalpina]].{{Citation needed|date=April 2022}}

[[Slavery]], as practised by the Celts, was very likely similar to the better documented [[Slavery in antiquity|practice in ancient Greece and Rome]].<ref name="Simmons 1615">{{cite book |last=Simmons |first=Victoria |title=Celtic Culture: A Historical Encyclopedia |editor-first=John T. |editor-last=Koch |publisher=[[ABC-CLIO]] |volume=I |page=1615 |isbn=978-1-85109-440-0 |date=2006}}</ref> Slaves were acquired from war, raids, and penal and debt servitude.<ref name="Simmons 1615" /> Slavery was hereditary,<ref>{{Cite journal |title=Holy Spirit - Gifts of the Holy Spirit |url= http://dx.doi.org/10.1163/2468-483x_smuo_com_001832 |access-date=22 October 2021 |website=Sacramentum Mundi Online |doi=10.1163/2468-483x_smuo_com_001832}}</ref> though [[manumission]] was possible. The [[Old Irish]] and Welsh words for 'slave', ''cacht'' and ''caeth'' respectively, are cognate with Latin ''captus'' 'captive' suggesting that the [[History of slavery|slave trade]] was an early means of contact between Latin and Celtic societies.<ref name="Simmons 1615" /> In the Middle Ages, slavery was especially prevalent in the [[Celtic nations|Celtic countries]].<ref>Simmons, ''op. cit.'', citing: Davies, Wendy; ''Wales in the Early Middle Ages''; p. 64.</ref> [[Manumission]]s were discouraged by law and the word for 'female slave', ''cumal'', was used as a general unit of value in Ireland.<ref>Simmons, ''op. cit.'', p. 1616, citing: Kelly; ''Guide to Early Irish Law''; p. 96.</ref>

There are only very limited records from pre-Christian times written in Celtic languages. These are mostly inscriptions in the Roman and sometimes Greek alphabets. The [[ogham]] script, an [[Early Medieval]] [[alphabet]], was mostly used in early Christian times in Ireland and Scotland (but also in Wales and England), and was only used for ceremonial purposes such as inscriptions on gravestones. The available evidence is of a strong oral tradition, such as that preserved by [[bard]]s in Ireland, and eventually recorded by [[monastery|monasteries]]. Celtic art also produced a great deal of intricate and beautiful metalwork, examples of which have been preserved by their distinctive burial rites.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Cunliffe |first=Barry W. |title=The Ancient Celts |date=2018 |isbn=978-0-19-875293-6 |edition=2nd |publisher=[[Oxford University Press]] |pages=49, 192, 200 |oclc=1034807416 |url= https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/1034807416}}</ref>

In some regards the Atlantic Celts were conservative: for example, they still used [[chariot]]s in combat long after they had been reduced to ceremonial roles by the Greeks and Romans. However, despite being outdated, Celtic [[chariot tactics]] were able to repel the [[Julius Caesar's invasions of Britain|invasions of Britain attempted by Julius Caesar]].<ref>{{Cite book |last=Caesar |first=Julius |title=The Conquest of Gaul |edition=revised |date=1983 |translator-first=S. A. |translator-last=Handford |editor-first=Jane F. |editor-last=Gardner |location=London |publisher=[[Penguin Books]] |at=Sect. 3, p. 33 |oclc=21116188 |isbn=9780140444339 |url= https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/21116188}}</ref>

According to Diodorus Siculus:

{{blockquote|The Gauls are tall of body with rippling muscles and white of skin and their hair is blond, and not only naturally so for they also make it their practice by artificial means to increase the distinguishing colour which nature has given it. For they are always washing their hair in [[limewater]] and they pull it back from the forehead to the nape of the neck, with the result that their appearance is like that of [[Satyr]]s and [[Faun|Pans]] since the treatment of their hair makes it so heavy and coarse that it differs in no respect from the mane of horses. Some of them shave the beard but others let it grow a little; and the nobles shave their cheeks but they let the moustache grow until it covers the mouth.}}

===Clothing===
{{multiple image
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| image1 = 0877 Keltische Frau im 3. Jh. v. Chr.JPG
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| image2 = 0910 Tracht der Kelten in Südpolen im 3. Jh. v. Chr.JPG

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| footer = Celtic costumes in [[Przeworsk culture]], third century BC, [[La Tène culture|La&nbsp;Tène period]], [[Archaeological Museum of Kraków]]
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During the later Iron Age, the Gauls generally wore long-sleeved shirts or [[tunic]]s and long trousers (called ''[[braccae]]'' by the Romans).<ref>Diodorus Siculus, ''Bibliotheca Historica''</ref> Clothes were made of [[wool]] or [[linen]], with some silk being used by the rich. [[Cloak]]s were worn in the winter. [[Brooch]]es<ref>{{Cite web |title=BBC - Wales - Education - Iron Age Celts - Factfile |url= https://www.bbc.co.uk/wales/celts/factfile/clothes.shtml |access-date=22 February 2023 |website=www.bbc.co.uk |archive-date=25 February 2023 |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20230225211722/https://www.bbc.co.uk/wales/celts/factfile/clothes.shtml |url-status=live}}</ref> and [[armlet]]s were used, but the most famous item of jewellery was the [[torc]], a neck collar of metal, sometimes gold. The horned [[Waterloo Helmet]] in the [[British Museum]], which long set the standard for modern images of Celtic warriors, is in fact a unique survival; it may have been a piece for ceremonial rather than military wear.<ref>{{Cite web |title=helmet {{!}} British Museum |url= https://www.britishmuseum.org/collection/object/H_1988-1004-1 |access-date=17 March 2024 |website=www.britishmuseum.org |language=en}}</ref>{{clear left}}

===Trade and coinage===
Archaeological evidence suggests that the pre-Roman Celtic societies were linked to the network of overland [[trade route]]s that spanned Eurasia. Archaeologists have discovered large prehistoric trackways crossing bogs in Ireland and Germany. Due to their substantial nature, these are believed to have been created for wheeled transport as part of an extensive roadway system that facilitated trade.<ref>{{cite journal |title=Neolithic wooden trackways and bog hydrology |journal=Journal of Paleolimnology |publisher=[[Springer Science+Business Media|Springer]] Netherlands |volume=12 |issue=1 |date=January 1994 |pages=49–64 |doi=10.1007/BF00677989 |last1=Casparie |first1=Wil A. |last2=Moloney |first2=Aonghus |bibcode=1994JPall..12...49C |s2cid=129780014}}</ref> The territory held by the Celts contained [[tin]], lead, iron, silver and gold.<ref>{{cite web |url= http://www.nationaltrust.org.uk/main/w-ar_r_wal.pdf |title=Regional Reviews: Wales |url-status=dead |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20110604092735/http://www.nationaltrust.org.uk/main/w-ar_r_wal.pdf |archive-date=4 June 2011}}&nbsp;{{small|(369 KB)}} Beatrice Cauuet (Université Toulouse Le Mirail, UTAH, France)</ref> Celtic smiths and metalworkers created weapons and jewellery for [[international trade]], particularly with the Romans.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Jeffers |first=Regina |date=10 June 2014 |title=The Scope and Influence of The Ancient Celts |url= https://reginajeffers.blog/2014/06/10/the-scope-and-influence-of-the-ancient-celts/ |access-date=26 June 2024 |website=Every Woman Dreams... |language=en}}</ref>

The myth that the Celtic [[monetary system]] consisted of wholly [[barter]] is a common one, but is in part false. The monetary system was complex and is still not understood (much like the late Roman coinages), and due to the absence of large numbers of coin items, it is assumed that "proto-money" was used. This included bronze items made from the early La Tène period and onwards, which were often in the shape of [[axe]]heads, rings, or [[bell (instrument)|bells]]. Due to the large number of these present in some burials, it is thought they had a relatively high [[Value (economics)|monetary value]], and could be used for "day to day" purchases. Low-value coinages of [[potin]], a bronze alloy with high tin content, were minted in most Celtic areas of the continent and in South-East Britain prior to the Roman conquest of these lands. Higher-value coinages, suitable for use in trade, were minted in gold, silver, and high-quality bronze. [[Gold coin]]age was much more common than [[silver coin]]age, despite being worth substantially more, as while there were around 100 mines in Southern Britain and Central France, silver was more rarely mined. This was due partly to the relative sparsity of mines and the amount of effort needed for extraction compared to the profit gained. As the Roman civilisation grew in importance and expanded its trade with the Celtic world, silver and bronze coinage became more common. This coincided with a major increase in gold production in Celtic areas to meet the Roman demand, due to the high value Romans put on the metal. The large number of gold mines in France is thought to be a major reason why Caesar invaded.<ref>{{Cite web |date=16 January 2021 |title=The Gallic Wars: How Julius Caesar Conquered Gaul (Modern France) |url= https://www.thecollector.com/gallic-wars-how-julius-caesar-conquered-gaul/ |access-date=26 June 2024 |website=TheCollector |language=en}}</ref>

===Gender and sexual norms===
[[File:Celtic.warriors.garments-replica.jpg|thumb|upright|Reconstruction of the dress and equipment of an Iron Age Celtic warrior from [[Biebertal]], Germany]]
{{see also|Ancient Celtic women}}

Very few reliable sources exist regarding Celtic views on [[gender role]]s, though some archaeological evidence suggests their views may have differed from those of the Greco-Roman world, which tended to be less [[egalitarian]].<ref>{{cite book |first=J. A. |last=MacCulloch |title=The Religion of the Ancient Celts |publisher=Morrison & Gibb |date=1911 |pages=4–5}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last=Evans |first=Thomas L. |title=Quantified Identities: A Statistical Summary and Analysis of Iron Age Cemeteries in North-Eastern France 600–130 BC, BAR International Series 1226 |publisher=[[Archaeopress]] |date=2004 |pages=34–40, 158–88}}</ref> Some Iron Age burials in northeastern Gaul suggest women may have had roles in warfare during the earlier ''La Tène'' period, but the evidence is far from conclusive.<ref>{{cite book |last=Evans |first=Thomas L. |title=Quantified Identities: A Statistical Summary and Analysis of Iron Age Cemeteries in North-Eastern France 600–130 BC, BAR International Series 1226 |publisher=[[Archaeopress]] |date=2004 |pages=34–37}}</ref> Celtic individuals buried with both female jewellery and weaponry have been found, such as the [[Vix Grave]] in northeastern Gaul, and there are questions about the gender of some individuals buried with weaponry. However, it has been suggested that the weapons indicate high social rank rather than masculinity.<ref>{{cite book |last=Nelson |first=Sarah M. |title=Gender in archaeology: analyzing power and prestige: Volume 9 of Gender and archaeology series |publisher=[[Rowman Altamira]] |date=2004 |page=119}}</ref>

Most written accounts of the Ancient Celts are from the Romans and Greeks, though it is not clear how accurate these are. Roman historians [[Ammianus Marcellinus]] and [[Tacitus]] mentioned Celtic women inciting, participating in, and leading battles.<ref>{{cite book |last=Tierney |first=J. J. |title=The Celtic Ethnography of Posidonius |series=Proceedings of the [[Royal Irish Academy]] |volume=60 C |pages=1.89–275}}</ref> [[Plutarch]] reports that Celtic women acted as ambassadors to avoid a war among Celtic chiefdoms in the [[Po valley]] during the 4th century BC.<ref name="Ellis">{{cite book |last=Ellis |first=Peter Berresford |title=The Celts: A History |pages=49–50 |publisher=Caroll & Graf |date=1998 |isbn=978-0-7867-1211-3}}</ref> Posidonius' anthropological comments on the Celts had common themes, primarily [[primitivism]], extreme ferocity, cruel sacrificial practices, and the strength and courage of their women.<ref>
{{cite book |title=Celts and the Classical World |last=Rankin |first=H. David |publisher=[[Routledge]] |date=1996 |page=80 |isbn=978-0-415-15090-3}}</ref> [[Cassius Dio]] suggests there was great [[sexual norm|sexual freedom]] among women in Celtic Britain:<ref name="Dio Cassius">[[List of Ancient Rome-related topics|Roman History]] Volume IX Books 71–80, Dio Cassiuss and Earnest Carry translator (1927), [[Loeb Classical Library]] {{ISBN|0-674-99196-6}}.</ref>

{{blockquote|...&nbsp;a very witty remark is reported to have been made by the wife of Argentocoxus, a [[Caledonians|Caledonian]], to [[Livia|Julia Augusta]]. When the empress was jesting with her, after the treaty, about the free intercourse of her sex with men in Britain, she replied: "We fulfill the demands of nature in a much better way than do you Roman women; for we consort openly with the best men, whereas you let yourselves be debauched in secret by the vilest". Such was the retort of the British woman.}}

Barry Cunliffe writes that such references are "likely to be ill-observed" and meant to portray the Celts as outlandish "barbarians".<ref>{{cite book |last1=Cunliffe |first1=Barry |title=The Ancient Celts |date=2018 |publisher=[[Oxford University Press]] |page=236}}</ref> Historian Lisa Bitel argues the descriptions of Celtic women warriors are not credible. She says some Roman and Greek writers wanted to show that the barbarian Celts lived in "an upside-down world&nbsp;... and a standard ingredient in such a world was the manly warrior woman".<ref>{{cite book |last=Bitel |first=Lisa M. |title=Land of Women: Tales of Sex and Gender from Early Ireland |url= https://archive.org/details/landofwomentales00bite |url-access=limited |publisher=[[Cornell University Press]] |date=1996 |page=[https://archive.org/details/landofwomentales00bite/page/212 212] |isbn=978-0-8014-8544-2}}</ref>

The Greek philosopher [[Aristotle]] wrote in his ''[[Politics (Aristotle)|Politics]]'' that the [[Celtic settlement of Southeast Europe|Celts of southeastern Europe]] approved of male homosexuality. Greek historian [[Diodorus Siculus]] wrote in his ''[[Bibliotheca historica]]'' that although Gaulish women were beautiful, the men had "little to do with them" and it was a custom for men to sleep on animal skins with two younger males. He further claimed that "the young men will offer themselves to strangers and are insulted if the offer is refused". His claim was later repeated by Greco-Roman writers [[Athenaeus]] and [[Ammianus Marcellinus|Ammianus]].<ref>{{cite book |last=Percy |first=William A. |title=Pederasty and Pedagogy in Archaic Greece |publisher=[[University of Illinois Press]] |date=1996 |url= https://archive.org/details/pederastypedagog00perc/page/18 |page=[https://archive.org/details/pederastypedagog00perc/page/18 18] |isbn=978-0-252-06740-2 |access-date=18 September 2009}}; Rankin, H. David; ''Celts and the Classical World''; p. 55.</ref> H. David Rankin, in ''Celts and the Classical World'', suggests some of these claims refer to bonding rituals in warrior groups, which required abstinence from women at certain times,<ref>Rankin, p. 78.</ref> and says it probably reflects "the warlike character of early contacts between the Celts and the Greeks".<ref>Rankin, p. 55.</ref>

Under [[Early Irish law|Brehon Law]], which was written down in [[early Medieval Ireland]] after conversion to Christianity, a woman had the right to divorce her husband and gain his property if he was unable to perform his marital duties due to impotence, obesity, homosexual inclination or preference for other women.<ref>{{Cite web |title=History of the Law in Ireland {{!}} The Courts Service of Ireland |url= https://www.courts.ie/history-law-ireland#:~:text=In%20many%20respects%20Brehon%20law,punishment%20was%20prescribed%20for%20wrongdoing. |access-date=26 June 2024 |website=www.courts.ie}}</ref><ref name="Cáin Lánamna (Couples Law)">University College, Cork. '' Cáin Lánamna (Couples Law) ''. 2005.{{cite web |url= http://www.ucc.ie/celt/online/G102030.html |title=Cáin Lánamna |access-date=20 November 2007 |url-status=live |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20081216104108/http://www.ucc.ie/celt/online/G102030.html |archive-date=16 December 2008}} Access date: 7 March 2006.</ref>{{failed verification|date=January 2022}}

===Celtic art===
[[File:Scuto Battersea BritMu252a.jpg|thumb|The [[Battersea Shield]], a ceremonial bronze shield dated 3rd–1st century BC, is an example of La Tène [[Celtic art]] from Britain]]
{{main|Celtic art}}

Celtic art is generally used by art historians to refer to art of the La Tène period across Europe, while the [[Early Medieval]] art of Britain and Ireland, that is what "Celtic art" evokes for much of the general public, is called [[Insular art]] in art history. Both styles absorbed considerable influences from non-Celtic sources, but retained a preference for geometrical decoration over figurative subjects, which are often extremely stylised when they do appear; narrative scenes only appear under outside influence. Energetic circular forms, [[triskele]]s and spirals are characteristic. Much of the surviving material is in precious metal, which no doubt gives a very unrepresentative picture, but apart from [[Pictish stones]] and the Insular [[high crosses]], large [[monumental sculpture]], even with decorative carving, is very rare; possibly it was originally common in wood. Celts were also able to create developed musical instruments such as the carnyces, these famous war trumpets used before the battle to frighten the enemy, as the best preserved found in [[Tintignac]] ([[Gaul]]) in 2004 and which were decorated with a boar head or a snake head.<ref>{{cite web |url= http://tintignac.wix.com/tintignac-naves#!english/c11e3 |title=Accueil |trans-title=Home |work=Site archéologique de Tintignac-Naves |language=fr |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20150801011716/http://tintignac.wix.com/tintignac-naves |archive-date=1 August 2015 |url-status=live}}</ref>

The [[interlace (art)|interlace]] patterns that are often regarded as typical of "Celtic art" were characteristic of the whole of the British Isles, a style referred to as [[Insular art]], or Hiberno-Saxon art. This artistic style incorporated elements of La Tène, Late Roman, and, most importantly, [[Germanic animal style|animal Style II]] of Germanic [[Migration Period art]]. The style was taken up with great skill and enthusiasm by Celtic artists in metalwork and [[illuminated manuscript]]s. Equally, the forms used for the finest Insular art were all adopted from the Roman world: [[Gospel book]]s like the [[Book of Kells]] and [[Book of Lindisfarne]], chalices like the [[Ardagh Chalice]] and [[Derrynaflan Chalice]], and [[Celtic brooch|penannular brooch]]es like the [[Tara Brooch]] and [[Roscrea Brooch]]. These works are from the period of peak achievement of Insular art, which lasted from the 7th to the 9th centuries, before the [[Viking]] attacks sharply set back cultural life.{{Citation needed|date=April 2022}}

In contrast the less well known but often spectacular art of the richest earlier Continental Celts, before they were conquered by the Romans, often adopted elements of Roman, Greek and other "foreign" styles (and possibly used imported craftsmen) to decorate objects that were distinctively Celtic. After the Roman conquests, some Celtic elements remained in popular art, especially [[Ancient Roman pottery]], of which Gaul was actually the largest producer, mostly in Italian styles, but also producing work in local taste, including [[figurine]]s of deities and wares painted with animals and other subjects in highly formalised styles. [[Roman Britain]] also took more interest in [[vitreous enamel|enamel]] than most of the Empire, and its development of [[champlevé]] technique was probably important to the later [[Medieval art]] of the whole of Europe, of which the energy and freedom of Insular decoration was an important element. Rising nationalism brought [[Celtic Revival|Celtic revivals]] from the 19th century.{{Citation needed|date=April 2022}}

===Gallic calendar===
The [[Coligny calendar]], which was found in 1897 in [[Coligny, Ain|Coligny]], Ain, was engraved on a [[bronze]] tablet, preserved in 73 fragments, that originally was {{convert|1.48|m|abbr=off}} wide and {{convert|0.9|m|abbr=off}} high (Lambert p.&nbsp;111). Based on the style of lettering and the accompanying objects, it probably dates to the end of the 2nd century.<ref>Lambert, Pierre-Yves (2003). ''La langue gauloise''. Paris, Editions Errance. 2nd edition. {{ISBN|2-87772-224-4}}. Chapter 9 is titled "Un calandrier gaulois"</ref> It is written in Latin inscriptional capitals, and is in [[Gaulish]]. The restored tablet contains 16 vertical columns, with 62 months distributed over 5 years.{{Citation needed|date=April 2022}}

French archaeologist J. Monard speculated that it was recorded by [[druid]]s wishing to preserve their tradition of timekeeping in a time when the [[Julian calendar]] was imposed throughout the [[Roman Empire]]. However, the general form of the calendar suggests the public peg calendars (or ''[[Almanac#Hemerologies and parapegmata|parapegmata]]'') found throughout the Greek and Roman world.<ref>Lehoux, D. R.  ''Parapegmata: or Astrology, Weather, and Calendars in the Ancient World'', pp&nbsp;63–65. [http://www.collectionscanada.ca/obj/s4/f2/dsk2/ftp03/NQ53766.pdf PhD Dissertation, University of Toronto, 2000] {{webarchive|url= https://web.archive.org/web/20060923180849/http://www.collectionscanada.ca/obj/s4/f2/dsk2/ftp03/NQ53766.pdf |date=23 September 2006 }}.</ref>