Editing Causes of mental disorders (section)

==Environmental factors==
{{See also|Social determinants of health|Social determinants of health in poverty|Social determinants of mental health}}The term "environment" is very loosely defined in the context of mental illnesses. Unlike biological and psychological causes, environmental causes denote a wide range of [[Stressor|stressors]] that individuals experience in everyday life. They are more psychologically than biologically based.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Schmidt CW | title = Environmental connections: a deeper look into mental illness | journal = Environmental Health Perspectives | volume = 115 | issue = 8 | pages = A404, A406-A404, A410 | date = August 2007 | pmid = 17687431 | pmc = 1940091 | doi = 10.1289/ehp.115-a404 }}</ref> Events that evoke feelings of loss are the most likely to cause a mental disorder to develop in an individual.<ref name=":1" /> 

Environmental factors include but are not limited to dysfunctional home life, poor [[Interpersonal relationship|interpersonal relationships]], [[substance abuse]], not meeting social expectations, low [[self-esteem]], and [[poverty]].<ref name=":1" /> The British charity organisation [[Mind (charity)|Mind]] lists [[Child abuse|childhood abuse]], [[Psychological trauma|trauma]], [[violence]], [[neglect]], [[social isolation]], [[discrimination]], [[grief]], stress, [[homelessness]], social disadvantage, debt, unemployment, caring for a family member or friend, and significant trauma as an adult (such as [[war]], an accident, or being the victim of a [[violent crime]]) as possible triggers of an episode of mental illness.<ref>{{Cite web |date=October 2017 |title=What causes mental health problems? |url=https://www.mind.org.uk/information-support/types-of-mental-health-problems/mental-health-problems-introduction/causes/ |website=mind.org.uk}}</ref>

Repeating generational patterns, behaviors that are passed down through different familial generations, are also a risk factor for mental illness, especially in children.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Landstedt |first1=Evelina |last2=Almquist |first2=Ylva B. |date=December 2019 |title=Intergenerational patterns of mental health problems: the role of childhood peer status position |journal=BMC Psychiatry |language=en |volume=19 |issue=1 |page=286 |doi=10.1186/s12888-019-2278-1 |issn=1471-244X |pmc=6749655 |pmid=31533680 |doi-access=free }}</ref>

===Life events and emotional stress===
Mistreatment in childhood or adulthood (including [[sexual abuse|sexual]]-, [[physical abuse|physical]]-, and [[emotional abuse]], [[domestic violence]], and [[bullying]]) has been linked to the onset of mental disorders through an interaction of societal, familial, psychological, and biological factors. More generally, negative or stressful life events have been implicated in the development of a range of disorders, including mood and anxiety disorders.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Phillips |first1=Anna C. |last2=Carroll |first2=Douglas |last3=Der |first3=Geoff |date=2015-07-04 |title=Negative life events and symptoms of depression and anxiety: stress causation and/or stress generation |journal=Anxiety, Stress, & Coping |language=en |volume=28 |issue=4 |pages=357–371 |doi=10.1080/10615806.2015.1005078 |issn=1061-5806 |pmc=4772121 |pmid=25572915}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Hassanzadeh |first1=Akbar |last2=Heidari |first2=Zahra |last3=Feizi |first3=Awat |last4=Hassanzadeh Keshteli |first4=Ammar |last5=Roohafza |first5=Hamidreza |last6=Afshar |first6=Hamid |last7=Adibi |first7=Payman |date=2017 |title=Association of Stressful Life Events with Psychological Problems: A Large-Scale Community-Based Study Using Grouped Outcomes Latent Factor Regression with Latent Predictors |journal=Computational and Mathematical Methods in Medicine |language=en |volume=2017 |pages=1–12 |doi=10.1155/2017/3457103 |issn=1748-670X |pmc=5625761 |pmid=29312459 |doi-access=free }}</ref>

The main risks appear to be from the [[Cumulative effects (environment)|accumulation]] of such experiences over time, although a single major trauma can sometimes lead to disorders, especially [[post-traumatic stress disorder]]. [[Psychological resilience|Resilience]] to such experiences varies; a person may be resistant to some stressors but not to others. The psychological resilience of an individual can be affected by [[genetics]], temperamental characteristics, [[cognitive flexibility]], [[Coping|coping strategies]], and previous experiences.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Vella |first1=Shae-LeighCynthia |last2=Pai |first2=NageshB |date=2019 |title=A theoretical review of psychological resilience: Defining resilience and resilience research over the decades |journal=Archives of Medicine and Health Sciences |language=en |volume=7 |issue=2 |pages=233 |doi=10.4103/amhs.amhs_119_19 |s2cid=209406511 |issn=2321-4848 |doi-access=free }}</ref> For example, in the case of [[bipolar disorder]], stress is not a specific cause but does place genetically and biologically vulnerable people at risk for more severe forms of the illness.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Anderson |first1=Ian M. |last2=Haddad |first2=Peter M. |last3=Scott |first3=Jan |date=2012-12-27 |title=Bipolar disorder |url=https://www.bmj.com/content/345/bmj.e8508 |journal=BMJ |language=en |volume=345 |pages=e8508 |doi=10.1136/bmj.e8508 |issn=1756-1833 |pmid=23271744|s2cid=22156246 }}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last=Kerner |first=Berit |date=February 2014 |title=Genetics of bipolar disorder |journal=The Application of Clinical Genetics |volume=7 |language=en |pages=33–42 |doi=10.2147/TACG.S39297 |issn=1178-704X |pmc=3966627 |pmid=24683306 |doi-access=free }}</ref>

===Adverse childhood experiences===
{{main|Adverse childhood experiences}}
{{Further|Stress in early childhood|Childhood schizophrenia}}

The Adverse Childhood Experiences Study has shown a strong [[dose–response relationship]] between adverse childhood experiences or ACEs (such as physical and/or emotional neglect, [[Child abuse|abuse]], poverty, [[malnutrition]], and traumatic experiences) and numerous health, social, and behavioral problems including [[Suicide attempt|suicide attempts]] and the frequency of depressive episodes.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Felitti |first1=Vincent J |last2=Anda |first2=Robert F |last3=Nordenberg |first3=Dale |last4=Williamson |first4=David F |last5=Spitz |first5=Alison M |last6=Edwards |first6=Valerie |last7=Koss |first7=Mary P |last8=Marks |first8=James S |date=May 1998 |title=Relationship of Childhood Abuse and Household Dysfunction to Many of the Leading Causes of Death in Adults |journal=American Journal of Preventive Medicine |language=en |volume=14 |issue=4 |pages=245–258 |doi=10.1016/S0749-3797(98)00017-8|pmid=9635069 |s2cid=26055600 |doi-access=free }}</ref> Several such experiences can cause [[toxic stress]].<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Bucci |first1=Monica |last2=Marques |first2=Sara Silvério |last3=Oh |first3=Debora |last4=Harris |first4=Nadine Burke |date=August 2016 |title=Toxic Stress in Children and Adolescents |url=https://doi.org/10.1016/j.yapd.2016.04.002 |journal=Advances in Pediatrics |volume=63 |issue=1 |pages=403–428 |doi=10.1016/j.yapd.2016.04.002 |pmid=27426909 |s2cid=37342598 |issn=0065-3101}}</ref>

ACEs may affect the structural and functional development of the brain and lead to abnormalities, and [[Chronic pain|chronic]] trauma can disrupt [[Immune response|immune responses]] and cause lasting dysregulated inflammatory response.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Crick |first1=Daisy C.P. |last2=Halligan |first2=Sarah L. |last3=Howe |first3=Laura D. |last4=Lacey |first4=Rebecca E. |last5=Khandaker |first5=Golam M. |last6=Burgner |first6=David |last7=Herbert |first7=Annie |last8=Suderman |first8=Matthew |last9=Anderson |first9=Emma L. |last10=Fraser |first10=Abigail |date=February 2022 |title=Associations between Adverse Childhood Experiences and the novel inflammatory marker glycoprotein acetyls in two generations of the Avon Longitudinal Study of Parents and Children birth cohort |journal=Brain, Behavior, and Immunity |language=en |volume=100 |pages=112–120 |doi=10.1016/j.bbi.2021.11.001 |pmc=8791601 |pmid=34793940}}</ref> A child's neurological development can be disrupted when chronically exposed to stressful events, and his/her cognitive functioning and/or ability to cope with negative emotions can diminish.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Morgan |first1=Cyleen A. |last2=Chang |first2=Yun-Hsuan |last3=Choy |first3=Olivia |last4=Tsai |first4=Meng-Che |last5=Hsieh |first5=Shulan |date=2021-12-31 |title=Adverse Childhood Experiences Are Associated with Reduced Psychological Resilience in Youth: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis |journal=Children |language=en |volume=9 |issue=1 |pages=27 |doi=10.3390/children9010027 |issn=2227-9067 |pmc=8773896 |pmid=35053652 |doi-access=free }}</ref> Over time, the child may adopt various harmful coping strategies that contribute to later mental and physical problems.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Sheffler |first1=Julia L. |last2=Piazza |first2=Jennifer R. |last3=Quinn |first3=Jamie M. |last4=Sachs-Ericsson |first4=Natalie J. |last5=Stanley |first5=Ian H. |date=2019-09-03 |title=Adverse childhood experiences and coping strategies: identifying pathways to resiliency in adulthood |journal=Anxiety, Stress, & Coping |language=en |volume=32 |issue=5 |pages=594–609 |doi=10.1080/10615806.2019.1638699 |issn=1061-5806 |pmc=6824267 |pmid=31288568}}</ref> Findings have been mixed, but some studies suggest that [[cognitive deficit]] is more related to neglect than other forms of adversity.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Gould |first1=Felicia |last2=Clarke |first2=Jennifer |last3=Heim |first3=Christine |last4=Harvey |first4=Philip D. |last5=Majer |first5=Matthias |last6=Nemeroff |first6=Charles B. |date=April 2012 |title=The effects of child abuse and neglect on cognitive functioning in adulthood |journal=Journal of Psychiatric Research |language=en |volume=46 |issue=4 |pages=500–506 |doi=10.1016/j.jpsychires.2012.01.005 |pmc=3307950 |pmid=22336639}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Berthelot |first1=Nicolas |last2=Paccalet |first2=Thomas |last3=Gilbert |first3=Elsa |last4=Moreau |first4=Isabel |last5=Mérette |first5=Chantal |last6=Gingras |first6=Nathalie |last7=Rouleau |first7=Nancie |last8=Maziade |first8=Michel |date=September 2015 |title=Childhood abuse and neglect may induce deficits in cognitive precursors of psychosis in high-risk children |journal=Journal of Psychiatry and Neuroscience |language=en |volume=40 |issue=5 |pages=336–343 |doi=10.1503/jpn.140211 |issn=1180-4882 |pmc=4543096 |pmid=26035064}}</ref>

Poor parenting is a risk factor for depression and anxiety. Separation, grief in families, and other forms childhood trauma are risk factors for [[schizophrenia]].<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Popovic |first1=David |last2=Schmitt |first2=Andrea |last3=Kaurani |first3=Lalit |last4=Senner |first4=Fanny |last5=Papiol |first5=Sergi |last6=Malchow |first6=Berend |last7=Fischer |first7=Andre |last8=Schulze |first8=Thomas G. |last9=Koutsouleris |first9=Nikolaos |last10=Falkai |first10=Peter |date=2019-03-21 |title=Childhood Trauma in Schizophrenia: Current Findings and Research Perspectives |journal=Frontiers in Neuroscience |volume=13 |page=274 |doi=10.3389/fnins.2019.00274 |issn=1662-453X |pmc=6448042 |pmid=30983960 |doi-access=free }}</ref> Children are more susceptible to psychological harm from traumatic events than adults,<ref>{{Cite web |last=Peterson |first=Sarah |date=2018-02-01 |title=Effects |url=https://www.nctsn.org/what-is-child-trauma/trauma-types/early-childhood-trauma/effects |access-date=2023-07-02 |website=The National Child Traumatic Stress Network |language=en}}</ref> but their reaction does vary by individual child, age, the type of event, and the length of exposure.

[[Neglect]] is a form of mistreatment in which the responsible caretakers fail to provide the necessary age-appropriate care, supervision, and protection. It is different from [[abuse]] in that it is, in this context, not intentional in causing harms.<ref>{{Citation |last1=Gonzalez |first1=Dulce |title=Child Abuse and Neglect |date=2023 |url=http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK459146/ |work=StatPearls |access-date=2023-07-02 |place=Treasure Island (FL) |publisher=StatPearls Publishing |pmid=29083602 |last2=Bethencourt Mirabal |first2=Arian |last3=McCall |first3=Janelle D.}}</ref> The long-term effects of neglect can be reduced physical, emotional, and mental health throughout the victim's life.<ref>{{Citation |last1=Petersen |first1=Anne C. |title=Consequences of Child Abuse and Neglect |date=2014-03-25 |url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK195987/ |work=New Directions in Child Abuse and Neglect Research |access-date=2023-07-02 |publisher=National Academies Press (US) |language=en |last2=Joseph |first2=Joshua |last3=Feit |first3=Monica }}</ref><ref>{{Citation |last=Horwath |first=Jan |title=Living with Child Neglect: The Impact on Children |date=2007 |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/978-0-230-20982-4_3 |work=Child Neglect: Identification and Assessment |pages=41–68 |access-date=2023-07-02 |place=London |publisher=Macmillan Education UK |doi=10.1007/978-0-230-20982-4_3 |doi-broken-date=1 November 2024 |isbn=978-1-4039-3346-1}}</ref>

===Familial and close relationships===
Parental divorce, death, absence, or the lack of stability appears to increase the risk of mental disorders in a child.<ref>{{cite web | vauthors = Tashjian S, Mullins J |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20181017014543/https://www.psychologyinaction.org/psychology-in-action-1/2018/4/23/k17ziyfqt1vy9tlytr9l9k48epdnur |   archive-date=October 17, 2018    |date=May 16, 2018|title=Parenting Styles and Child Behavior |url= https://www.psychologyinaction.org/psychology-in-action-1/2018/4/23/k17ziyfqt1vy9tlytr9l9k48epdnur |website=Psychology in Action}}</ref> Early social [[privation]], and the lack of "ongoing, harmonious, secure, committed" relationships have been implicated in the development of mental illnesses.<ref>{{cite web | url = https://www.mhanational.org/relationships | title = Relationships | work = Mental Health America | access-date = 8 August 2022 }}</ref> Continuous conflict with friends, one's support system, and family can all increase the risk of developing a mental illness or can worsen one's mental health.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Marquis P | title = Family dysfunction as a risk factor in the development of antisocial behavior | journal = Psychological Reports | volume = 71 | issue = 2 | pages = 468–470 | date = October 1992 | pmid = 1410104 | doi = 10.2466/pr0.1992.71.2.468 | s2cid = 8826585 | doi-access = free }}</ref> 

[[Divorce]] is a factor that affects adults as well as children. Divorcees may have emotional adjustment problems due to a loss of intimacy and social connections; however, new statistics show that the negative effects of divorce have been overstated.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Sander S, Strizzi JM, Øverup CS, Cipric A, Hald GM | title = When Love Hurts - Mental and Physical Health Among Recently Divorced Danes | journal = Frontiers in Psychology | volume = 11 | pages = 578083 | date = 2020-11-30 | pmid = 33329227 | pmc = 7734469 | doi = 10.3389/fpsyg.2020.578083 | doi-access = free }}</ref>

===Social expectations and self-esteem===
Having both too low or too high [[self-esteem]] can be detrimental to an individual's mental health.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Simpson |first1=J. |last2=Hillman |first2=R. |last3=Crawford |first3=T. |last4=Overton |first4=P. G. |date=2010-12-01 |title=Self-esteem and self-disgust both mediate the relationship between dysfunctional cognitions and depressive symptoms |url=https://doi.org/10.1007/s11031-010-9189-2 |journal=Motivation and Emotion |language=en |volume=34 |issue=4 |pages=399–406 |doi=10.1007/s11031-010-9189-2 |s2cid=145371730 |issn=1573-6644}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Baumeister |first1=Roy F. |last2=Smart |first2=Laura |last3=Boden |first3=Joseph M. |date=1996 |title=Relation of threatened egotism to violence and aggression: The dark side of high self-esteem. |url=http://doi.apa.org/getdoi.cfm?doi=10.1037/0033-295X.103.1.5 |journal=Psychological Review |language=en |volume=103 |issue=1 |pages=5–33 |doi=10.1037/0033-295X.103.1.5 |pmid=8650299 |issn=1939-1471}}</ref> Low self-esteem in particular can result in aggression, self-deprecating behavior, anxiety, and other mental disorders.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Sowislo |first1=Julia Friederike |last2=Orth |first2=Ulrich |date=January 2013 |title=Does low self-esteem predict depression and anxiety? A meta-analysis of longitudinal studies. |url=http://doi.apa.org/getdoi.cfm?doi=10.1037/a0028931 |journal=Psychological Bulletin |language=en |volume=139 |issue=1 |pages=213–240 |doi=10.1037/a0028931 |pmid=22730921 |issn=1939-1455}}</ref> Being perceived as someone who does not "fit in" can result in bullying and other types of emotional abuse,<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Hoover |first1=John H. |last2=Oliver |first2=Ronald L. |last3=Thomson |first3=Keith A. |date=December 1993 |title=Perceived Victimization by School Bullies: New Research and Future Direction |url=https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/j.2164-4683.1993.tb00133.x |journal=The Journal of Humanistic Education and Development |language=en |volume=32 |issue=2 |pages=76–84 |doi=10.1002/j.2164-4683.1993.tb00133.x}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Nansel |first1=Tonja R. |last2=Overpeck |first2=Mary |last3=Pilla |first3=Ramani S. |last4=Ruan |first4=W. June |last5=Simons-Morton |first5=Bruce |last6=Scheidt |first6=Peter |date=2001-04-25 |title=Bullying Behaviors Among US Youth: Prevalence and Association With Psychosocial Adjustment |journal=JAMA |language=en |volume=285 |issue=16 |pages=2094–2100 |doi=10.1001/jama.285.16.2094 |issn=0098-7484 |pmc=2435211 |pmid=11311098}}</ref> which can lead to the victim experiencing depression, anger, and loneliness.<ref>{{Citation |last1=Rivara |first1=Frederick |title=Consequences of Bullying Behavior |date=2016-09-14 |url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK390414/ |work=Preventing Bullying Through Science, Policy, and Practice |access-date=2023-07-02 |publisher=National Academies Press (US) |language=en |last2=Menestrel |first2=Suzanne Le |last3=Prevention |first3=Committee on the Biological and Psychosocial Effects of Peer Victimization: Lessons for Bullying |last4=Board on Children |first4=Youth |last5=Justice |first5=Committee on Law and |last6=Education |first6=Division of Behavioral and Social Sciences and |last7=Division |first7=Health and Medicine |last8=National Academies of Sciences |first8=Engineering}}</ref>

===Poverty===
{{See|Socioeconomic status and mental health|Social determinants of mental health}}
[[File:National Geographic, v31, Czech poor peasant children.jpg|thumb|Poor Czech poor children in 1917.]]
Studies show that there is a [[Correlation|direct correlation]] between [[poverty]] and mental illness: the lower the socioeconomic status of an individual, the higher the risk of mental illness. Impoverished people in England, defined as those who live in the lowest 20% income bracket, are two to three times more likely to develop mental illness than those of a higher [[Social class|economic class]].<ref>Marmot MG. ''Fair Society  Healthy Lives : The Marmot Review ; Strategic Review of Health Inequalities in England Post-2010''. London: Marmot Review; 2010.</ref> This increased risk remains consistent for all poor individuals regardless of any in-group demographic differences, as all disadvantaged families experience economic stressors such as unemployment or lack of housing. A lower or more insecure educational, occupational, economic, or social position is generally linked to more mental disorders.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Perry |first=Melissa J. |date=1996-09-01 |title=The relationship between social class and mental disorder |url=https://doi.org/10.1007/BF02262736 |journal=Journal of Primary Prevention |language=en |volume=17 |issue=1 |pages=17–30 |doi=10.1007/BF02262736 |pmid=24254919 |s2cid=144679736 |issn=1573-6547}}</ref> Children from these backgrounds may have low levels of self-efficiency and self-worth.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Doi |first1=Satomi |last2=Fujiwara |first2=Takeo |last3=Isumi |first3=Aya |last4=Ochi |first4=Manami |date=2019 |title=Pathway of the Association Between Child Poverty and Low Self-Esteem: Results From a Population-Based Study of Adolescents in Japan |journal=Frontiers in Psychology |volume=10 |page=937 |doi=10.3389/fpsyg.2019.00937 |issn=1664-1078 |pmc=6511812 |pmid=31133920 |doi-access=free }}</ref> Studies have also shown a strong relationship between poverty and [[substance abuse]], another risk factor in the onset of mental disorders.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Manhica |first1=Hélio |last2=Straatmann |first2=Viviane S. |last3=Lundin |first3=Andreas |last4=Agardh |first4=Emilie |last5=Danielsson |first5=Anna-Karin |date=July 2021 |title=Association between poverty exposure during childhood and adolescence, and drug use disorders and drug-related crimes later in life |journal=Addiction |language=en |volume=116 |issue=7 |pages=1747–1756 |doi=10.1111/add.15336 |issn=0965-2140 |pmc=8247994 |pmid=33197093}}</ref>

Problems in one's community or culture including poverty, unemployment or [[underemployment]], a lack of [[Group cohesiveness|social cohesion]], and migration have been associated with the development of mental disorders.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Breedvelt |first1=Josefien J. F. |last2=Tiemeier |first2=Henning |last3=Sharples |first3=Evelyn |last4=Galea |first4=Sandro |last5=Niedzwiedz |first5=Claire |last6=Elliott |first6=Iris |last7=Bockting |first7=Claudi L. |date=July 2022 |title=The effects of neighbourhood social cohesion on preventing depression and anxiety among adolescents and young adults: rapid review |journal=BJPsych Open |language=en |volume=8 |issue=4 |pages=e97 |doi=10.1192/bjo.2022.57 |issn=2056-4724 |pmc=9230698 |pmid=35642359}}</ref> Personal resources, community factors, and interactions between individual and regional-level income levels have been implicated.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Sareen |first1=Jitender |last2=Afifi |first2=Tracie O. |last3=McMillan |first3=Katherine A. |last4=Asmundson |first4=Gordon J. G. |date=2011-04-01 |title=Relationship Between Household Income and Mental Disorders: Findings From a Population-Based Longitudinal Study |url=http://archpsyc.jamanetwork.com/article.aspx?doi=10.1001/archgenpsychiatry.2011.15 |journal=Archives of General Psychiatry |language=en |volume=68 |issue=4 |pages=419–427 |doi=10.1001/archgenpsychiatry.2011.15 |pmid=21464366 |s2cid=39076836 |issn=0003-990X}}</ref> Socioeconomic deprivation in neighborhoods can cause worsen mental health, even after accounting for genetic factors.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Raphael |first1=Eva |last2=White |first2=Justin S. |last3=Li |first3=Xinjun |last4=Cederin |first4=Klas |last5=Glymour |first5=M. Maria |last6=Sundquist |first6=Kristina |last7=Sundquist |first7=Jan |last8=Hamad |first8=Rita |date=May 2020 |title=Neighborhood Deprivation and Mental Health Among Immigrants to Sweden |journal=Epidemiology |language=en |volume=31 |issue=3 |pages=e25–e27 |doi=10.1097/EDE.0000000000001160 |issn=1044-3983 |pmc=7138696 |pmid=31977591}}</ref> According to a 2009 meta-analysis by Paul and Moser, countries with high income inequality and poor unemployment protections have worse mental health outcomes among the unemployed.<ref>{{Cite web |title=The toll of job loss |url=https://www.apa.org/monitor/2020/10/toll-job-loss |access-date=2023-11-26 |website=www.apa.org}}</ref>

The effects of different socioeconomic factors varies by country.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Currie |first1=Janet |last2=Stabile |first2=Mark |date=2003-11-01 |title=Socioeconomic Status and Child Health: Why Is the Relationship Stronger for Older Children? |url=https://pubs.aeaweb.org/doi/10.1257/000282803322655563 |journal=American Economic Review |language=en |volume=93 |issue=5 |pages=1813–1823 |doi=10.1257/000282803322655563 |pmid=29058847 |issn=0002-8282}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Cameron |first1=Lisa |last2=Williams |first2=Jenny |date=2009-05-01 |title=Is the relationship between socioeconomic status and health stronger for older children in developing countries? |url=https://read.dukeupress.edu/demography/article/46/2/303/169929/Is-the-relationship-between-socioeconomic-status |journal=Demography |language=en |volume=46 |issue=2 |pages=303–324 |doi=10.1353/dem.0.0054 |issn=0070-3370 |pmc=2831276 |pmid=21305395}}</ref> Minority [[ethnic]] groups, including first or second-generation [[immigrants]], are at a greater risk of developing mental disorders. This has been attributed to the insecurities in their lives and their disadvantages, including [[racism]].<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Kirmayer |first1=L. J. |last2=Narasiah |first2=L. |last3=Munoz |first3=M. |last4=Rashid |first4=M. |last5=Ryder |first5=A. G. |last6=Guzder |first6=J. |last7=Hassan |first7=G. |last8=Rousseau |first8=C. |last9=Pottie |first9=K. |last10=for the Canadian Collaboration for Immigrant and Refugee Health (CCIRH) |date=2011-09-06 |title=Common mental health problems in immigrants and refugees: general approach in primary care |journal=Canadian Medical Association Journal |language=en |volume=183 |issue=12 |pages=E959–E967 |doi=10.1503/cmaj.090292 |issn=0820-3946 |pmc=3168672 |pmid=20603342}}</ref> There have been alternate models, such as the [[drift hypothesis]] to account for the complex relationship between an individual's social status and mental health.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Fox |first=John W. |date=December 1990 |title=Social Class, Mental Illness, and Social Mobility: The Social Selection-Drift Hypothesis for Serious Mental Illness |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.2307/2136818 |journal=Journal of Health and Social Behavior |volume=31 |issue=4 |pages=344–353 |doi=10.2307/2136818 |jstor=2136818 |pmid=2135936 |issn=0022-1465}}</ref>