Editing Altruism (section)

== Extreme altruism ==

===Pathological altruism===
Pathological altruism is altruism taken to an unhealthy extreme, such that it either harms the altruistic person or the person's well-intentioned actions cause more harm than good.

The term "pathological altruism" was popularised by the book ''[[Pathological Altruism]]''.

Examples include [[Depression (mood)|depression]] and [[Occupational burnout|burnout]] seen in healthcare professionals, an unhealthy focus on others to the detriment of one's own needs, [[animal hoarding]], and ineffective philanthropic and social programs that ultimately worsen the situations they are meant to aid.<ref>{{cite book |doi=10.1093/acprof:oso/9780199738571.001.0001 |title=Pathological Altruism |date=2011 |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-19-973857-1 |editor-last1=Oakley |editor-last2=Knafo |editor-last3=Madhavan |editor-last4=Wilson |editor-first1=Barbara |editor-first2=Ariel |editor-first3=Guruprasad |editor-first4=David Sloan |pages=3–9 |chapter=Chapter 1: Pathological Altruism — An Introduction |first1=Barbara |last1=Oakley |first2=Ariel |last2=Knafo |first3=Michael |last3= McGrath }}</ref>

Extreme altruism also known as costly altruism, extraordinary altruism, or heroic behaviours (shall be distinguished from [[hero]]ism), refers to selfless acts directed to a stranger which significantly exceed the normal altruistic behaviours, often involving risks or great cost to the altruists themselves.<ref name=":0" /> Since acts of extreme altruism are often directed towards strangers, many commonly accepted models of simple altruism appear inadequate in explaining this phenomenon.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=de Waal |first1=Frans B.M. |title=Putting the Altruism Back into Altruism: The Evolution of Empathy |journal=Annual Review of Psychology |date=1 January 2008 |volume=59 |issue=1 |pages=279–300 |doi=10.1146/annurev.psych.59.103006.093625 |pmid=17550343 }}</ref>

One of the initial concepts was introduced by Wilson in 1976, which he referred to as "hard-core" altruism.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Wilson |first1=John P. |title=Motivation, modeling, and altruism: A Person × Situation analysis. |journal=Journal of Personality and Social Psychology |date=December 1976 |volume=34 |issue=6 |pages=1078–1086 |doi=10.1037/0022-3514.34.6.1078 }}</ref> This form is characterised by impulsive actions directed towards others, typically a stranger and lacking incentives for reward. Since then, several papers have mentioned the possibility of such altruism.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Piliavin |first1=Jane Allyn |last2=Charng |first2=Hong-Wen |title=Altruism: A Review of Recent Theory and Research |journal=Annual Review of Sociology |date=1990 |volume=16 |pages=27–65 |doi=10.1146/annurev.so.16.080190.000331 |jstor=2083262 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Krebs |first1=Dennis L. |title=Altruism and Egoism: A False Dichotomy? |journal=Psychological Inquiry |date=1991 |volume=2 |issue=2 |pages=137–139 |doi=10.1207/s15327965pli0202_9 |jstor=1449250 }}</ref>

In 21st century the progress in the field slowed down due to adopting ethical guidelines that restrict exposing research participants to costly or risky decisions (see [[Declaration of Helsinki]]). Consequently, much research has based their studies on living organ donations and the actions of [[Carnegie Hero Fund|Carnegie Hero medal Recipients]], actions which involve high risk, high cost, and are of infrequent occurrences.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Stromberg |first=Joseph |date=15 October 2014 |title=The science of extreme altruism: why people risk their lives to save strangers |url=https://www.vox.com/2014/10/15/6973971/extreme-altruism-risk-life |access-date=9 January 2025 |website=Vox |language=en-US}}</ref> A typical example of extreme altruism would be non-directed kidney donation—a living person donating one of their kidneys to a stranger without any benefits or knowing the recipient.

However, current research can only be carried out on a small population that meets the requirements of extreme altruism. Most of the time the research is also via the form of self-report which could lead to self-report biases.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Rusch |first=Hannes |date=1 February 2022 |title=Heroic behavior: A review of the literature on high-stakes altruism in the wild |journal=Current Opinion in Psychology |volume=43 |pages=238–243 |doi=10.1016/j.copsyc.2021.07.024 |pmid=34454246 |issn=2352-250X|doi-access=free }}</ref> Due to the limitations, the current gap between high stakes and normal altruism remains unknown.<ref name=":3" />

=== Characteristics of extreme altruists ===

* Norms

In 1970, Schwartz hypothesised that extreme altruism is positively related to a person's moral norms and is not influenced by the cost associated with the action.<ref name=":3">{{Cite journal |last=Rusch |first=Hannes |date=2022 |title=Heroic behavior: A review of the literature on high-stakes altruism in the wild |journal=Current Opinion in Psychology|volume=43 |pages=238–243 |doi=10.1016/j.copsyc.2021.07.024|pmid=34454246 |doi-access=free }}</ref> This hypothesis was supported in the same study examining bone marrow donors. Schwartz discovered that individuals with strong personal norms and those who attribute more responsibility to themselves are more inclined to participate in bone marrow donation.<ref name=":3" /> Similar findings were observed in a 1986 study by Piliavin and Libby focusing on blood donors.<ref name=":8" /> These studies suggest that personal norms lead to the activation of moral norms, leading individuals to feel compelled to help others.<ref name=":3" />

* Enhanced Fear Recognition

Abigail Marsh has described psychopaths as the "opposite" group of people to extreme altruists<ref name=":8">{{cite journal |last1=Marsh |first1=Abigail A. |title=Understanding amygdala responsiveness to fearful expressions through the lens of psychopathy and altruism |journal=Journal of Neuroscience Research |date=June 2016 |volume=94 |issue=6 |pages=513–525 |doi=10.1002/jnr.23668 |pmid=26366635 }}</ref> and has conducted a few research, comparing these two groups of individuals. Utilising techniques such as brain imaging and behavioural experiments, Marsh's team observed that kidney donors tend to have larger amygdala sizes and exhibit better abilities in recognizing fearful expressions compared to psychopathic individuals.<ref name=":0" /> Furthermore, an improved ability to recognize fear has been associated with an increase in prosocial behaviours, including greater charity contribution.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Marsh |first1=Abigail A. |last2=Kozak |first2=Megan N. |last3=Ambady |first3=Nalini |date=2007 |title=Accurate identification of fear facial expressions predicts prosocial behavior |journal=Emotion |volume=7 |issue=2 |pages=239–251 |doi=10.1037/1528-3542.7.2.239 |pmc=2743452 |pmid=17516803 }}</ref>

* Fast Decisions when Perform Acts of Extreme Altruism

Rand and Epstein explored the behaviours of 51 Carnegie Hero Medal Recipients, demonstrating how extreme altruistic behaviours often stem from system I of the [[Dual process theory|Dual Process Theory]], which leads to rapid and intuitive behaviours.<ref name=":4">{{cite journal |last1=Rand |first1=David G. |last2=Epstein |first2=Ziv G. |title=Risking Your Life without a Second Thought: Intuitive Decision-Making and Extreme Altruism |journal=PLOS ONE |date=15 October 2014 |volume=9 |issue=10 |pages=e109687 |doi=10.1371/journal.pone.0109687 |pmid=25333876 |doi-access=free |pmc=4198114 |bibcode=2014PLoSO...9j9687R }}</ref> Additionally, a separate by Carlson et al. indicated that such prosocial behaviours are prevalent in emergencies where immediate actions are required.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Carlson |first1=Ryan W. |last2=Aknin |first2=Lara B. |last3=Liotti |first3=Mario |title=When is giving an impulse? An ERP investigation of intuitive prosocial behavior |journal=Social Cognitive and Affective Neuroscience |date=July 2016 |volume=11 |issue=7 |pages=1121–1129 |doi=10.1093/scan/nsv077 |pmc=4927032 |pmid=26084530 }}</ref>

This discovery has led to ethical debates, particularly in the context of living organ donation, where laws regarding this issue differ by country.<ref>{{cite book |doi=10.1007/978-3-642-33799-4 |title=Regulations Regarding Living Organ Donation in Europe |date=2013 |last1=Lopp |first1=Leonie |isbn=978-3-642-33798-7 |page=15 }}</ref> As observed in extreme altruists, these decisions are made intuitively, which may reflect insufficient consideration. Critics are concerned about whether this rapid decision encompasses a thorough cost-benefit analysis and question the appropriateness of exposing donors to such risk.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Friedman Ross |first1=Lainie |last2=Glannon |first2=Walter |last3=Josephson |first3=Michelle A. |last4=Thistlethwaite |first4=J. Richard |title=Should all living donors be treated equally? |journal=Transplantation |date=August 2002 |volume=74 |issue=3 |pages=418–421 |doi=10.1097/00007890-200208150-00025 |pmid=12177627 }}</ref>

* Social discounting

One finding suggests how extreme altruists exhibit lower levels of social discounting as compared to others. With that meaning extreme altruists place a higher value on the welfare of strangers than a typical person does.<ref name=":1" /><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Vekaria |first1=Kruti M. |last2=Brethel-Haurwitz |first2=Kristin M. |last3=Cardinale |first3=Elise M. |last4=Stoycos |first4=Sarah A. |last5=Marsh |first5=Abigail A. |title=Social discounting and distance perceptions in costly altruism |journal=Nature Human Behaviour |date=28 April 2017 |volume=1 |issue=5 |doi=10.1038/s41562-017-0100 }}</ref>

* Low Social-Economic Status

Analysis of 676 [[Carnegie Hero Fund|Carnegie Hero Award Recipients]]<ref name=":5">{{cite journal |last1=Johnson |first1=Ronald C. |title=Attributes of carnegie medalists performing acts of heroism and of the recipients of these acts |journal=Ethology and Sociobiology |date=September 1996 |volume=17 |issue=5 |pages=355–362 |doi=10.1016/S0162-3095(96)00059-3 }}</ref> and another study on 243 rescuing acts<ref name=":6">{{cite journal |last1=Lyons |first1=Minna T. |title=Who are the Heroes? Characteristics of People Who Rescue Others |journal=Journal of Cultural and Evolutionary Psychology |date=September 2005 |volume=3 |issue=3 |pages=245–254 |doi=10.1556/JCEP.3.2005.3-4.2 }}</ref> reveal that a significant proportion of rescuers come from lower socio-economic backgrounds. Johnson attributes the distribution to the high-risk occupations that are more prevalent between lower socioeconomic groups.<ref name=":5" /> Another hypothesis proposed by Lyons is that individuals from these groups may perceive they have less to lose when engaging in high-risk extreme altruistic behaviours.<ref name=":6" />

=== Possible explanations ===
Evolutionary theories such as the kin-selection, reciprocity, vested interest and punishment either contradict or do not fully explain the concept of extreme altruism.<ref name=":7">{{cite book |doi=10.4324/9781315690100 |title=Handbook of Heroism and Heroic Leadership |date=2016 |isbn=978-1-317-42611-0 |url=https://eprints.kingston.ac.uk/id/eprint/48727/6/Rotella-A-48727-AAM.pdf |editor-last1=Allison |editor-last2=Goethals |editor-last3=Kramer |editor-first1=Scott T. |editor-first2=George R. |editor-first3=Roderick M. |chapter= Why Heroism Exists: Evolutionary Perspectives on Extreme Helping |first1=Sara |last1=Kafashan |first2=Adam |last2=Sparks |first3=Amanda |last3=Rotella |first4=Pat |last4=Barclay |pages=36–57 }}</ref> As a result, considerable research has attempted for a separate explanation for this behaviour.

* Costly Signalling Theory for Extreme Behaviours

Research suggests that males are more likely to engage in heroic and risk-taking behaviours due to a preference among females for such traits.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Kelly |first1=Susan |last2=Dunbar |first2=R. I. M. |title=Who dares, wins: Heroism versus altruism in women's mate choice |journal=Human Nature |date=June 2001 |volume=12 |issue=2 |pages=89–105 |doi=10.1007/s12110-001-1018-6 |pmid=26192164 }}</ref> These extreme altruistic behaviours could serve to act as an unconscious "signal" to showcase superior power and ability compared to ordinary individuals.<ref name=":7" /> When an extreme altruist survives a high-risk situation, they send an "honest signal" of quality.<ref name=":7" /> Three qualities hypothesized to be exhibited by extreme altruists, which could be interpreted as "signals", are: (1) traits that are difficult to fake, (2) a willingness to help, and (3) generous behaviours.<ref name=":7" />

* Empathy-Altruism Hypothesis

The empathy altruism hypothesis appears to align with the concept of extreme altruism without contradiction. The hypothesis was supported with further brain scanning research, which indicates how this group of people demonstrate a higher level of empathy concern. The level of empathy concern then triggers activation in specific brain regions, urging the individual to engage in heroic behaviours.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=FeldmanHall |first1=Oriel |last2=Dalgleish |first2=Tim |last3=Evans |first3=Davy |last4=Mobbs |first4=Dean |date=January 2015 |title=Empathic concern drives costly altruism |journal=NeuroImage|volume=105 |pages=347–356 |doi=10.1016/j.neuroimage.2014.10.043 |pmc=4275572 |pmid=25462694}}</ref>

* Mistakes and Outliers

While most altruistic behaviours offer some form of benefit, extreme altruism may sometimes result from a mistake where the victim does not reciprocate.<ref name=":7" /> Considering the impulsive characteristic of extreme altruists, some researchers suggest that these individuals have made a wrong judgement during the cost-benefit analysis.<ref name=":4" /> Furthermore, extreme altruism might be a rare variation of altruism where they lie towards to ends of a normal distribution.<ref name=":7" /> In the US, the annual prevalence rate per capita is less than 0.00005%, this shows the rarity of such behaviours.<ref name=":1" />