Editing Zeno of Citium (section)

==Philosophy==
[[File:Zenon Kitiefs.JPG|thumb|Modern bust of Zeno in Athens]]
Following the ideas of the [[Platonic Academy|Old Academy]], Zeno divided [[philosophy]] into three parts: [[logic]] (a wide subject including [[rhetoric]], [[grammar]], and the theories of [[perception]] and [[thought]]); [[physics]] (not just [[science]], but the [[divinity|divine]] nature of the universe as well); and [[ethics]], the end goal of which was to achieve [[eudaimonia]] through the right way of living according to Nature. Because Zeno's ideas were later expanded upon by [[Chrysippus]] and other Stoics, it can be difficult to determine precisely what he thought. But his general views can be outlined as follows:
[[File:1 Socrate 2 Platon 3 Pythagore 4 Aristote 5 Zenon - Pouqueville François Charles Hugues Laurent - 1835.jpg|thumb| [[Socrates]], [[Plato]], [[Pythagoras]], [[Aristotle]] & Zeno by [[François Pouqueville]]]]

===Logic===
In his treatment of logic, Zeno was influenced by [[Stilpo]] and the other [[Megarian school of philosophy|Megarians]]. Zeno urged the need to lay down a basis for logic because the wise person must know how to avoid deception.<ref>Cicero, ''Academica'', ii. 20.</ref> [[Cicero]] accused Zeno of being inferior to his philosophical predecessors in his treatment of logic,<ref>Cicero, ''de Finibus'', iv. 4.</ref> and it seems true that a more exact treatment of the subject was laid down by his successors, including [[Chrysippus]].<ref>Sextus Empiricus, ''adv. Math.'' vii. 253.</ref> Zeno divided true conceptions into the comprehensible and the incomprehensible,<ref>Cicero, ''Academica'', ii. 6, 24.</ref> permitting for free-will the power of assent (''sinkatathesis''/συνκατάθεσις) in distinguishing between sense impressions.<ref name="cicero1">Cicero, ''Academica'', i. 11.</ref> Zeno said that there were four stages in the process leading to true [[knowledge]], which he illustrated with the example of the flat, extended hand, and the gradual closing of the fist:
<blockquote>Zeno stretched out his fingers, and showed the palm of his hand, – "Perception," – he said, – "is a thing like this."– 
Then, when he had closed his fingers a little, – "Assent is like this." – Afterwards, when he had completely closed his hand, and showed his fist, that, he said, was Comprehension. From which simile he also gave that state a new name, calling it ''[[katalepsis]]'' (κατάληψις). But when he brought his left hand against his right, and with it took a firm and tight hold of his fist: – "Knowledge" – he said, was of that character; and that was what none but a wise person possessed.<ref>Cicero, ''Academica'', 2.145 [47]</ref></blockquote>

===Physics===
The [[universe]], in Zeno's view, is [[God]]:{{sfn|Laërtius|1925|loc=§ 148}} a divine reasoning entity, where all the parts belong to the whole.<ref>Sextus Empiricus, ''adv. Math.'' ix. 104, 101; Cicero, ''de Natura Deorum'', ii. 8.</ref>  Into this [[pantheistic]] system he incorporated the physics of [[Heraclitus]]; the universe contains a divine artisan-fire, which foresees everything,<ref name="cicero2">Cicero, ''de Natura Deorum'', ii. 22.</ref> and extending throughout the universe, must produce everything:
<blockquote>Zeno, then, defines nature by saying that it is artistically working fire, which advances by fixed methods to creation. For he maintains that it is the main function of art to create and produce and that what the hand accomplishes in the productions of the arts we employ, is accomplished much more artistically by nature, that is, as I said, by artistically working fire, which is the master of the other arts.<ref name="cicero2"/></blockquote>

This divine fire,<ref name="cicero1"/> or aether,<ref>Cicero, ''Academica'', ii. 41.</ref> is the basis for all activity in the universe,<ref>Cicero, ''de Natura Deorum'', ii. 9, iii. 14.</ref> operating on otherwise passive matter, which neither increases nor diminishes itself.{{sfn|Laërtius|1925|loc=§ 150}} The primary substance in the universe comes from fire, passes through the stage of air, and then becomes water: the thicker portion becoming earth, and the thinner portion becoming air again, and then rarefying back into fire.{{sfn|Laërtius|1925|loc=§ 142, comp. 136}} Individual [[souls]] are part of the same fire as the [[Anima mundi|world-soul]] of the universe.<ref>Cicero, ''Tusculanae Quaestiones'', i. 9, ''de Natura Deorum'', iii. 14; {{harvnb|Laërtius|1925|loc=§ 156}}.</ref> Following Heraclitus, Zeno adopted the view that the universe underwent regular cycles of formation and destruction.<ref>Stobaeus, ''Ecl. Phys.'' i.{{full citation needed|date=September 2021}}</ref>

The nature of the universe is such that it accomplishes what is right and prevents the opposite,<ref name="cicero3">Cicero, ''de Natura Deorum'', i. 14.</ref> and is identified with unconditional [[Destiny|Fate]],{{sfn|Laërtius|1925|loc=§ 88, 148, etc., 156}} while allowing it the free-will attributed to it.<ref name="cicero2"/> According to Zeno's beliefs, "[t]rue happiness" can only be found by obeying natural laws and living in tune with the course of fate.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Caldwell |first=Wallace E. |title=History of the World |last2=Merrill |first2=Edward H. |publisher=The Greystone Press |year=1964 |volume=1 |location=[[United States]] |pages=119}}</ref>

===Ethics===
[[File:Zeno of Citium Nuremberg Chronicle.jpg|right|thumb|Zeno, portrayed as a medieval scholar in the ''[[Nuremberg Chronicle]]'']]
Like the [[Cynicism (philosophy)|Cynics]], Zeno recognised a single, sole and simple good,<ref>Cicero, ''Academica'', i. 10. 35–36 : "Zeno igitur nullo modo is erat qui ut Theophrastus nervos virtutis inciderit, sed contra qui omnia quae ad beatam vitam pertinerent in una virtute poneret nec quicquam aliud numeraret hi bonis idque appellaret honestum quod esset simplex quoddam et solum et unum bonum."</ref> which is the only goal to strive for.<ref>Cicero, ''de Finibus'', iii. 6. 8; comp. {{harvnb|Laërtius|1925|loc=§ 100, etc}}.</ref> "Happiness is a good flow of life," said Zeno,<ref>Stobaeus, 2.77.</ref> and this can only be achieved through the use of right reason coinciding with the universal reason (''[[Logos]]''), which governs everything. A bad feeling (''pathos'') "is a disturbance of the mind repugnant to reason, and against Nature."<ref>Cicero, ''Tusculanae Quaestiones'', iv. 6.</ref> This consistency of soul, out of which morally good actions spring, is [[virtue]],<ref>Cicero, ''Tusculanae Quaestiones'', iv. 15.</ref> true good can only consist in virtue.{{sfn|Laërtius|1925|loc=§ 102, 127}}

Zeno deviated from the Cynics in saying that things that are morally [[adiaphora]] (indifferent) could nevertheless have value. Things have a relative value in proportion to how they aid the natural instinct for self-preservation.<ref>{{harvnb|Laërtius|1925|loc=§ 85}}; Cicero, ''de Finibus'', iii. 5, 15, iv. 10, v. 9, ''Academica'', i. 16.</ref> That which is to be preferred is a "fitting action" (''[[kathekon|kathêkon]]''/καθῆκον), a designation Zeno first introduced.  Self-preservation, and the things that contribute towards it, has only a conditional value; it does not aid happiness, which depends only on moral actions.<ref>Cicero, ''de Finibus'', iii. 13.</ref>

Just as virtue can only exist within the dominion of reason, so [[evil|vice]] can only exist with the rejection of reason. Virtue is absolutely opposed to vice,<ref>Cicero, ''Tusculanae Quaestiones'', iv. 13, ''Academica'', i. 10, ''de Finibus'', iii. 21, iv. 9, ''Parad.'' iii. 1; {{harvnb|Laërtius|1925|loc=§ 127}}.</ref> the two cannot exist in the same thing together, and cannot be increased or decreased;<ref>Cicero, ''de Finibus'', iii. 14, etc.</ref> no one moral action is more virtuous than another.<ref>Cicero, ''de Finibus'', iii. 14; Sextus Empiricus, ''adv. Math.'' vii. 422.</ref> All actions are either good or bad, since impulses and desires rest upon free consent,<ref>Cicero, ''Tusculanae Quaestiones'', iv. 9, ''Academica'', i. 10.</ref> and hence even passive mental states or emotions that are not guided by reason are immoral,<ref>{{harvnb|Laërtius|1925|loc=§ 110}}; Cicero, ''Tusculanae Quaestiones'', iv. 6. 14.</ref> and produce immoral actions.<ref>Cicero, ''de Finibus'', iv. 38; Plutarch, ''de Virt. mor.''</ref> Zeno distinguished four negative [[emotions]]: desire, fear, pleasure and sorrow (''epithumia, phobos, hêdonê, lupê'' / ἐπιθυμία, φόβος, ἡδονή, λύπη),<ref>Cicero, ''Tusculanae Quaestiones'', iv. 6; {{harvnb|Laërtius|1925|loc=§ 110}}.</ref> and he was probably responsible for distinguishing the three corresponding positive emotions: will, caution, and joy (''boulêsis, eulabeia, chara'' / βούλησις, εὐλάβεια, χαρά), with no corresponding rational equivalent for pain. All errors must be rooted out, not merely set aside,<ref>Cicero, ''Tusculanae Quaestiones'', iv. 18, etc.</ref> and replaced with right reason.