Editing Zanzibar (section)

== History ==
{{Main|History of Zanzibar}}

=== Before 1498 ===
The presence of [[microlith]]s suggests that Zanzibar has been home to humans for at least 20,000 years,<ref>{{cite book |last= Hashim |first=Nadra O. |title=Language and Collective Mobilization: The Story of Zanzibar |url= https://books.google.com/books?id=LVFYmNO7BeEC&pg=PAxi |year=2009 |publisher=Lexington Books |isbn=978-0-73913708-6 |page=xi |access-date=14 November 2015 |archive-date=12 January 2023 |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20230112064543/https://books.google.com/books?id=LVFYmNO7BeEC&pg=PAxi |url-status=live }}</ref> which was the beginning of the [[Later Stone Age]].

A Greco-Roman text between the 1st and 3rd centuries, the ''[[Periplus of the Erythraean Sea]]'', mentioned the island of ''Menuthias'' ({{langx|grc|Μενουθιάς}}), which is probably [[Unguja]].<ref name="Pearce">{{Cite book |first=Francis Barrow |last=Pearce |url= https://books.google.com/books?id=XRRzAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA81-IA2 |title= Zanzibar: The Island Metropolis of Eastern Africa |date=1920 |publisher= Dutton & Com |location=New York City |author-link=Francis Barrow Pearce |access-date=14 November 2015 |archive-date=12 January 2023 |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20230112064543/https://books.google.com/books?id=XRRzAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA81-IA2 |url-status=live }}</ref>

At the outset of the first millennium, both Zanzibar and the nearby coast were settled by [[Bantu languages|Bantu]] speakers. Archaeological finds at Fukuchani, on the northwest coast of Zanzibar, indicate a settled agricultural and fishing community from the 6th century at the latest. The considerable amount of [[Wattle and daub|daub]] found indicates timber buildings, and shell beads, bead grinders, and iron slag have been found at the site. There is evidence of limited engagement in long-distance trade: a small amount of imported pottery has been found, less than 1% of total pottery finds, mostly from the Gulf and dated to the 5th to 8th century. The similarity to contemporary sites such as Mkokotoni and Dar es Salaam indicates a unified group of communities that developed into the first center of coastal maritime culture. The coastal towns appear to have been engaged in Indian Ocean and inland African trade at this early period.<ref>{{cite journal |last1= Kusimba |first1=Chapurukha |last2=Walz |first2=Jonathan |year=2018 |title=When did the Swahili become Maritime?: A Reply to Fleisher et al. (2015), and to the Resurgence in Maritime Myopia in the Archaeology of the East African Coast |journal=[[American Anthropologist]] |volume=120 |number=3 |pages=100–115 |doi=10.1111/aman.12171 |pmid=25821235 |pmc=4368416 |url=}}</ref> Trade rapidly increased in importance and quantity beginning in the mid-8th century and by the close of the 10th century, Zanzibar was one of the central Swahili trading towns.<ref name= SLandscape>{{cite book |last1=Horton |first1=Mark |last2=Middleton |first2=Tom |title=The Swahili: The Social Landscape of a Mercantile Community |place= Oxford |publisher=Wiley-Blackwell |year=2001 |isbn= 978-0-63118919-0}}</ref>{{rp |46}}

Excavations at nearby Pemba Island, but especially at Shanga in the Lamu Archipelago, provide the clearest picture of architectural development. Houses were originally built with timber (circa 1050) and later in mud with coral walls (circa 1150). The houses were continually rebuilt with more permanent materials. By the 13th century, houses were built with stone, and bonded with mud, and the 14th century saw the use of lime to bond stone. Only the wealthier patricians would have had stone- and lime-built houses, and the strength of the materials allowed for flat roofs. By contrast, the majority of the population lived in single-story thatched houses similar to those of the 11th and 12th centuries. According to John Middleton and Mark Horton, the architectural style of these stone houses have no Arab or Persian elements, and should be viewed as an entirely indigenous development of local vernacular architecture. While much of Zanzibar Town's architecture was rebuilt during Omani rule, nearby sites elucidate the general development of Swahili and Zanzibari architecture before the 15th century.<ref name= SLandscape />{{rp|119}}

From the 9th century, Swahili merchants on Zanzibar operated as brokers for long-distance traders from both the hinterland and Indian Ocean world. Persian, Indian, and Arab traders frequented Zanzibar to acquire East African goods like gold, ivory, and ambergris and then shipped them overseas to Asia. Similarly, caravan traders from the [[African Great Lakes]] and [[Zambezian Region]] came to the coast to trade for imported goods, especially Indian cloth. Before the Portuguese arrival, the southern towns of [[Unguja Ukuu]] and [[Kizimkazi]] and the northern town of [[Tumbatu]] were the dominant centres of exchange. Zanzibar was just one of the many autonomous city-states that dotted the East African coast. These towns grew in wealth as the [[Swahili people]] served as intermediaries and facilitators to merchants and traders.<ref>{{cite book |last=Kusimba |first=Chapurukha |title=The Rise and Decline of Swahili States |place=Walnut Creek, California |publisher=Altamira |year=1999 |isbn=9780761990512}}</ref> This interaction between Central African and Indian Ocean cultures contributed in part to the evolution of the [[Swahili culture]], which developed an Arabic-script literary tradition. Although a Bantu language, the [[Swahili language]] as a consequence today includes some borrowed elements, particularly [[loanword]]s from [[Arabic]], though this was mostly a 19th-century phenomenon with the growth of Omani hegemony. Many foreign traders from Africa and Asia married into wealthy patrician families on Zanzibar. Asian men in particular, who resided on the coast for up to six months because of the prevailing monsoon wind patterns, married East African women. Since almost all the Asian traders were Muslims, their children inherited their paternal ethnic identity, though East African matrilineal traditions remained key.<ref>{{cite book |last=Campbell |first=Gwynn |title= Africa and the Indian Ocean World from Early Times to Circa 1900 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |year=2019 |isbn= 978-1-10857862-2}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |first1=Stephanie |last1= Wynne-Jones |first2=Adria |last2=LaViolette |title=The Swahili World |publisher=Routledge |year=2018 |isbn=978-1-13891346-2}}</ref>

=== Portuguese colonization ===
[[File:The old castle in Zanzibar.JPG|thumb|right|The castle in Zanzibar]]
[[Vasco da Gama]]'s visit in 1498 marked the beginning of European influence. In 1503 or 1504, Zanzibar became part of the [[Portuguese Empire]] when Captain Rui Lourenço Ravasco Marques came ashore and received tribute from the sultan in exchange for peace.<ref name="Ingrams">{{cite book |url= https://books.google.com/books?id=oYhrCkGaxyUC |title=Zanzibar: Its History and Its People |first=W. H. |last=Ingrams |date=1 June 1967 |publisher=Psychology Press |access-date=12 March 2018 |via=Google Books |isbn=978-0-71461102-0 |archive-date=12 January 2023 |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20230112064542/https://books.google.com/books?id=oYhrCkGaxyUC |url-status=live }}</ref>{{rp| 99}} Zanzibar remained a possession of Portugal for almost two centuries. It initially became part of the Portuguese province of Arabia and Ethiopia and was administered by a governor-general. Around 1571, Zanzibar became part of the western division of the Portuguese empire and was administered from [[Mozambique]].<ref name="Eliot"/>{{rp| 15}} It appears, however, that the Portuguese did not closely administer Zanzibar. The first English ship to visit Unguja, the ''Edward Bonaventure'' in 1591, found that there was no Portuguese fort or garrison. The extent of their occupation was a trade depot where produce was bought and collected for shipment to Mozambique. "In other respects, the affairs of the island were managed by the local 'king', the predecessor of the Mwinyi Mkuu of Dunga."<ref name="Pearce"/>{{rp| 81}} This hands-off approach ended when Portugal established a fort on Pemba Island around 1635 in response to the Sultan of [[Mombasa]]'s slaughter of Portuguese residents several years earlier. Portugal had long considered Pemba to be a troublesome launching point for rebellions in Mombasa against Portuguese rule.<ref name="Pearce"/>{{rp| 85}}

The precise origins of the sultans of Unguja are uncertain. However, their capital at [[Unguja Ukuu]] is believed to have been an extensive town. Possibly constructed by locals, it was composed mainly of perishable materials.<ref name="Pearce"/>{{rp| 89}}

=== Sultanate of Zanzibar ===
{{Main|Sultanate of Zanzibar}}
[[File:ZanzibarOmaniRuler.jpg|thumb|left|[[Oman]]i Sultan of Zanzibar]]
[[File:TipputipPortrait.jpg|thumb|left|Zanzibari slave trader [[Tippu Tip]]]]
[[File:The Harem and Tower Harbour of Zanzibar (p.234, 1890) - Copy.jpg|thumb|right|The Harem and Tower Harbour of Zanzibar (p. 234), London Missionary Society<ref name=LMS>{{cite journal |title= The Harem and Tower Harbour of Zanzibar |journal=Chronicles of the London Missionary Society |date=1890 |url= https://archive.org/details/chroniclelondon00unkngoog |access-date=2 November 2015}}</ref>]]

The Portuguese arrived in East Africa in 1498, where they found several independent towns on the coast, with Muslim Arabic-speaking elites. While the Portuguese travellers describe them as "black", they made a clear distinction between the Muslim and non-Muslim populations.<ref>Prestholdt, Jeremy. "Portuguese Conceptual Categories and the ‘Other’ Encounter on the Swahili Coast." Journal of Asian American Studies, Volume 36, Issue 4, 390.</ref> Their relations with these leaders were mostly hostile, but during the sixteenth century, they firmly established their power and ruled with the aid of tributary sultans. The Portuguese presence was relatively limited, leaving administration in the hands of the local leaders and power structures already present. This system lasted until 1631, when the Sultan of Mombasa massacred the Portuguese inhabitants. For the remainder of their rule, the Portuguese appointed European governors. The strangling of trade and diminished local power led the Swahili elites in Mombasa and Zanzibar to invite Omani aristocrats to assist them in driving the Europeans out.<ref name="Eliot">Sir Charles Eliot, K.C.M.G., [https://archive.org/details/eastafricaprotec00eliouoft ''The East Africa Protectorate''], London: Edward Arnold, 1905, digitized by the Internet Archive in 2008 ([[PDF]] format).</ref>{{rp| 9}}

In 1698, Zanzibar came under the influence of the [[Oman|Sultanate of Oman]].<ref>N. S. Kharusi, [http://etn.sagepub.com/content/12/3/335 "The ethnic label Zinjibari: Politics and language choice implications among Swahili speakers in Oman"] {{Webarchive |url= https://web.archive.org/web/20150904033031/http://etn.sagepub.com/content/12/3/335 |date=4 September 2015 }}, ''Ethnicities'', 12(3) 335–53, 2012.</ref> There was a [[Oman–Zanzibar war|brief revolt]] against Omani rule in 1784. Local elites invited Omani merchant princes to settle in Zanzibar in the first half of the nineteenth century, preferring them to the Portuguese. Many locals today continue to emphasise that indigenous Zanzibaris had invited [[Seyyid Said]], the first Busaidi sultan, to their island.<ref name= "meier 103">{{Cite book |last=Meier |first=Sandy Prita |title= Swahili Port Cities: The Architecture of Elsewhere |publisher= Indiana University Press |date=25 April 2016 |location= Bloomington, [[Indiana|IN]] |page =103}}</ref> Claiming a patron{{ndash}}client relationship with powerful families was a strategy used by many Swahili coast towns from at least the fifteenth century.<ref name="meier 103"/>

In 1832<ref name="Ingrams"/>{{rp|page: 162}} or 1840<ref name= "Appiah">{{citation|editor1-last=Appiah|editor2-last=Gates|editor1-link= Kwame Anthony Appiah|editor2-first=Henry Louis Jr.|editor2-link=Henry Louis Gates, Jr. |year=1999 |title=Africana: The Encyclopedia of the African and African American Experience |publisher=[[Basic Books]] |location=[[New York City|New York]] |isbn= 0-465-00071-1 |oclc=41649745 |url= https://archive.org/details/africanaencyclop00appi}}</ref>{{rp|2 045}} (the date varies among sources), [[Said bin Sultan, Sultan of Muscat and Oman]] moved his capital from [[Muscat, Oman]] to Stone Town. After Said's death in June 1856, two of his sons, [[Thuwaini bin Said, Sultan of Muscat, and Oman|Thuwaini bin Said]] and [[Majid bin Said of Zanzibar|Majid bin Said]], struggled over the [[order of succession|succession]]. Said's will divided his dominions into two separate [[principality|principalities]], with Thuwaini to become the Sultan of Oman and Majid to become the first [[Sultan of Zanzibar]]; the brothers quarrelled about the will, which was eventually upheld by [[Charles Canning, 1st Earl Canning]], Great Britain's [[Governor-General of India|Viceroy and Governor-General of India]].<ref name="Ingrams"/>{{rp|pages: 163–4}}<ref name= "Eliot" />{{rp| 22–3}}

[[File:Zanzslgwch.jpg|thumb|right|A [[Zanj]] slave gang in Zanzibar (1889)]]
Until around 1890, the sultans of Zanzibar controlled a substantial portion of the [[Swahili coast]] known as [[Zanj]], which included Mombasa and [[Dar es Salaam]]. Beginning in 1886, Great Britain and Germany agreed to allocate parts of the Zanzibar sultanate for their own empires.<ref name="Appiah"/>{{rp|188}} In October 1886, a British-German border commission established the Zanj as a {{cvt|10|mi|km|adj=mid|-wide}} strip along most of the [[African Great Lakes]] region's coast, an area stretching from [[Cape Delgado]] (now in [[Mozambique]]) to [[Kipini]] (now in [[Kenya]]), including Mombasa and Dar es Salaam. Over the next few years most all of the mainland territory was incorporated into [[German East Africa]].
The sultans developed an economy of trade and [[cash crop]]s in the [[Zanzibar Archipelago]] with a ruling Arab elite. [[Ivory]] was a major trade good. The archipelago, sometimes referred to by locals as the Spice Islands, was famous worldwide for its cloves and other spices, and plantations were established to grow them. The archipelago's commerce gradually fell into the hands of traders from the [[Indian subcontinent]], whom Said bin Sultan encouraged to settle on the islands.
[[File:Zanzibar Slave Market, 1860 - Stocqueler.JPG|thumb|The island of Zanzibar was the center of the [[Indian Ocean slave trade]] in the 19th century]]

During his 14-year reign as sultan, Majid bin Said consolidated his power around the [[East African slave trade]]. Malindi in Zanzibar City was the Swahili Coast's main port for the slave trade with the Middle East. In the mid-19th century, as many as 50,000 slaves passed annually through the port.<ref name="nationalgeographic"/><ref>{{Cite book |last=Borders |first=Everett |title=Apart Type Screenplay |publisher=Xlibris Corporation |year=2010 |location= United States of America |page =117}}</ref>
{{blockquote|Many were captives of [[Tippu Tip]], a notorious Arab/Swahili slave trader and ivory merchant. Tip led huge expeditions, some 4,000 strong, into the African hinterland where chiefs sold him their villagers at low prices. These Tip used to carry ivory back to Zanzibar, then sold them in the slave market for large profits. In time, Tip became one of the wealthiest men in Zanzibar, the owner of multiple plantations and 10,000 slaves.<ref name="nationalgeographic">[http://ngm.nationalgeographic.com/ngm/data/2001/10/01/html/ft_20011001.6.html "Swahili Coast: East Africa's Ancient Crossroads"]{{Webarchive|url= https://web.archive.org/web/20180119091452/http://ngm.nationalgeographic.com/ngm/data/2001/10/01/html/ft_20011001.6.html |date=19 January 2018 }}, ''Did You Know?'' sidebar by Christy Ullrich, ''National Geographic''.</ref>}}

One of Majid's brothers, [[Barghash bin Said of Zanzibar|Barghash bin Said]], succeeded him, developing [[Unguja]]'s infrastructure.<ref>{{citation |last=Michler |first=Ian |title=Zanzibar: The Insider's Guide |publisher=Struik Publishers |location=Cape Town |year=2007 |edition=2nd |page=137 |isbn= 978-1-77007-014-1 |oclc=165410708}}</ref> Another brother of Majid, [[Khalifah bin Said of Zanzibar|Khalifa bin Said]], was the third sultan of Zanzibar and deepened the relationship with the British, leading to the archipelago's progress towards the abolition of slavery.<ref name="Ingrams"/>

=== British protectorate ===
[[File:Indian stamp Zanzibar 1896.jpg|thumb|The post office in Zanzibar was initially managed by the postal service of British India.]]
Control of Zanzibar gradually came into the hands of the [[British Empire]]; motivated both by a desire to control Zanzibar's clove and ivory exports, and in accordance with the 19th century movement for the [[Abolitionism in the United Kingdom|abolition of the slave trade]].

In 1822, Captain Moresby, the British [[consul (representative)|consul]] in Muscat pressed Sultan Said to end the slave trade by signing of the treaty [[Moresby Treaty]], the first of a series of anti-slavery treaties with Britain.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Sherif |first=Abdul |title=Slaves, Spices and Ivory in Zanzibar: Integration of an East African Coast into the World Economy, 1770–1873 |publisher=Ohio University Press |year=1987 |chapter=Athens}}</ref> It prohibited slave transport south and east of the Moresby Line, from Cape Delgado in Africa to Diu Head on the coast of India.<ref name="McIntyre">{{Cite book |first=Chris |last=McIntyre |first2=Susan |last2=McIntyre |date=2013 |title=Zanzibar |publisher=Bradt Travel Guides |page=10}}</ref> Said lost the revenue he would have received as duty on all slaves sold, so to make up for this shortfall he encouraged the development of the slave trade in Zanzibar itself.{{Sfn|McIntyre|McIntyre|2013|p=10}} However, Said came under increasing pressure from the British to abolish slavery entirely. In 1842, Britain told Said it wished to abolish the slave trade to Arabia, Oman, [[Iran|Persia]], and the [[Red Sea]].{{Sfn|McIntyre|McIntyre|2013|p=13}}

[[File:Zanzibar 1900 to 1920.jpg|thumb|left|A street scene in Zanzibar during the early 20th century]]
Ships from the [[Royal Navy]] were employed to enforce the anti-slavery treaties by capturing any [[dhow]]s carrying slaves. However, with only four ships patrolling a huge swath of sea, the British navy were unable to prevent ships from [[France]], [[Spain]], Portugal, and [[United States|America]] continuing to carry slaves.{{Sfn|McIntyre|McIntyre|2013|p=14}} By 1856, Sultan [[Majid bin Said of Zanzibar|Majid]] had consolidated his power around the [[African Great Lakes]] slave trade. But in 1873, British consul [[John Kirk (explorer)|Sir John Kirk]] threatened Majid's successor, [[Barghash bin Said of Zanzibar|Sultan Barghash]], with a total blockade of Zanzibar, forcing Barghash to reluctantly signed the Anglo-Zanzibari treaty. This abolished the slave trade, closed all slave markets and protected liberated slaves in the Sultan's territories.{{Sfn|McIntyre|McIntyre|2013|p=19}}

In 1890, the [[German Empire]], the nearest relevant colonial power, signed the 1890 [[Heligoland–Zanzibar Treaty]] with Britain, formally agreeing to  "recognize the British protectorate over… the islands of Zanzibar and Pemba".<ref>[http://germanhistorydocs.ghi-dc.org/pdf/eng/606_Anglo-German%20Treaty_110.pdf Article XI, Anglo-German Treaty (Heligoland-Zanzibar Treaty)] {{Webarchive|url= https://web.archive.org/web/20181123133909/http://germanhistorydocs.ghi-dc.org/pdf/eng/606_Anglo-German%20Treaty_110.pdf |date=23 November 2018 }}, 1 July 1890 ([[PDF]]).</ref>This allowed Zanzibar to become an official [[protectorate]] of Britain. This meant that the territory remained under the [[de jure]] rule of the [[Sultan of Zanzibar]], under the 'protection' of the British Crown, which exercised formal control over military and foreign affairs, and informal control over domestic areas through the appointment of British advisors. [[Robert Gascoyne-Cecil, 3rd Marquess of Salisbury|Prime Minister Salisbury]] explained the British position:
:The condition of a protected dependency is more acceptable to the half civilised races, and more suitable for them than direct dominion. It is cheaper, simpler, less wounding to their self-esteem, gives them more career as public officials, and spares them unnecessary contact with white men.<ref>Andrew Roberts, ''Salisbury: Victorian Titan'' (1999) p 529</ref>

From 1890 to 1913, traditional [[vizier]]s remained in charge, supervised by advisers appointed by the Colonial Office. In 1913, direct rule was implemented through British residents who were effectively governors. The death of the pro-British Sultan [[Hamad bin Thuwaini]] on 25 August 1896 (amidst rumours of poison) and the succession of Sultan [[Khalid bin Barghash of Zanzibar|Khalid bin Barghash]], whom the British did not approve of, led to the [[Anglo-Zanzibar War]].<ref name=":3">Tom Allen, Robert J Carsson, Sally Waller and Anthony Webster ''Oxford AQA History for A Level: The British Empire c1857-1967 Student Book Second Edition - Oxford AQA History for A Level''  (2021) p 63</ref> On the morning of 27 August 1896, the [[Royal Navy]] destroyed the Beit al Hukum Palace. A cease-fire was declared 38-minutes later and, to this day, the bombardment stands as the shortest war in history.<ref>{{cite book |url= https://archive.org/details/guinnessworldre000guin |title=Guinness World Records 2008 |date=7 August 2007 |publisher=Guinness World Records |isbn=978-1-904994-19-0|editor-last=Craig Glenday |location= London |page= [https://archive.org/details/guinnessworldre000guin/page/118 118] |url-access=registration}}</ref> Khalid was overthrown and the British-approved [[Hamoud bin Mohammed of Zanzibar|Sultan Hamoud]] was placed on the throne.<ref name=":3" />

=== Zanzibar revolution and merger with Tanganyika ===
{{main|Zanzibar Revolution}}
[[File:Abeid Karume 1964.jpg|thumb|180px|President [[Abeid Karume]]]]
On 10 December 1963,<ref>[[Zanzibar Act 1963]] of the United Kingdom – this Act was not a Zanzibar Independence Act because the UK was not conferring independence as it did not hold sovereignty; it was ending the Protectorate over that territory and providing for its fully responsible government.</ref> the Protectorate that had existed over Zanzibar since 1890 was terminated by the United Kingdom. Rather, by the Zanzibar Act 1963 of the United Kingdom, the UK ended the Protectorate and made provision for full self-government in Zanzibar as an independent country within the Commonwealth. Upon the Protectorate being abolished, Zanzibar became a [[constitutional monarchy]] within the Commonwealth under the Sultan.<ref name="DeptofStatep986">{{Harvnb|United States Department of State|1975|p=986}}</ref>

However, just a month later, on 12 January 1964 Sultan [[Jamshid bin Abdullah of Zanzibar|Jamshid bin Abdullah]] was [[deposition (politics)|deposed]] during the [[Zanzibar Revolution]].{{Sfn |Ayany|1970|p=122}} The Sultan fled into exile, and the Sultanate was replaced by the [[People's Republic of Zanzibar]], a [[State socialism|socialist government]] led by the [[Afro-Shirazi Party]] (ASP). Over 20,000 people were killed – mostly Arabs and Indians – and many of them escaped the country as a consequence of the revolution.<ref>{{Cite web |title=The forgotten genocide of the Zanzibar revolution |url= http://speakjhr.com/2014/01/forgotten-genocide-zanzibar-revolution/ |website=Speak Magazine |access-date=2016-01-04 |archive-date=13 December 2021 |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20211213123430/http://speakjhr.com/2014/01/forgotten-genocide-zanzibar-revolution/ |url-status=live }}</ref>

In April 1964, the republic merged with mainland [[Tanganyika (1961–1964)|Tanganyika.]] This [[United Republic of Tanganyika and Zanzibar]] was soon renamed, [[blend word|blend]]ing the two names, as the [[United Republic of Tanzania]], within which Zanzibar remains an autonomous region.