Editing Yahweh (section)

==History==
[[File:כתובת אריהו מפורשת.jpg|right|thumb|Uriyahu inscription, [[Khirbet el-Qom]], 8th c. BCE, "Blessed is/be Uriyahu by Yahweh"]]

===Periods===
[[Philip King (historian)|Philip King]] and [[Lawrence Stager]] place the history of Yahweh into the following periods:
* Late Bronze: 1550–1200{{nbsp}}BCE
* Iron Age I: 1200–1000{{nbsp}}BCE
* Iron Age II: 1000–586{{nbsp}}BCE
* Neo-Babylonian: 586–539{{nbsp}}BCE
* Persian: 539–332{{nbsp}}BCE{{sfn|King|Stager|2001|p=xxiii}}
Other academic terms often used include First Temple period, from the construction of the [[Temple in Jerusalem|Temple]] in 957{{nbsp}}BCE to its destruction in 586{{nbsp}}BCE, exilic for the period of the Exile from 586 to 539{{nbsp}}BCE (identical with Neo-Babylonian above), post-Exilic for later periods and Second Temple period from the reconstruction of the Temple in 515{{nbsp}}BCE until its destruction in 70{{nbsp}}CE.

===Late Bronze Age origins (1550–1200{{nbsp}}BCE)===
There is almost no agreement on the deity's origins.{{sfn|Fleming|2020|p=3}} Yahweh is not attested other than among the Israelites, and there is no consensus on its etymology, with {{tlit|hbo|ehyeh ašer ehyeh}} ('[[I Am that I Am]]'), the explanation presented in [[Book of Exodus|Exodus]] 3:14,<ref>{{bibleverse||Exodus|3:14|HE}}</ref> appearing to be a late theological [[Gloss (annotation)|gloss]] invented at a time when the original meaning had been forgotten,{{sfn|Parke-Taylor|1975|p=51}} although some scholars dispute this.{{sfn|Lewis|2020|page=214}}{{sfn|Miller II|2021|p=18}} Lewis connects the name to the [[Amorite language|Amorite]] element {{tlit|mis|yahwi-}} (''ia-wi''), found in personal names in [[Mari, Syria|Mari]] texts,{{sfn|Kitz|2019|pp=42, 57}} meaning 'brings to life'{{\}}'causes to exist' (e.g., ''yahwi-dagan'' = "[[Dagon]] causes to exist"), commonly denoted as the semantic equivalent of the [[Akkadian language|Akkadian]] {{tlit|akk|ibašši-DN}};{{sfn|Lewis|2020|pp=211, 215}} though [[Frank Moore Cross]] emphasized that the Amorite verbal form is of interest only in attempting to reconstruct the verbal root of the name "Yahweh", and that attempts to take ''yahwi-'' as a divine epithet should be "vigorously" argued against.{{sfn|Cross|1973|pp=61-63}}<ref>{{harvnb|Fleming|2020|p=176}}: "There has been one key objection, by Michael Streck, who reevaluated Amorite personal names as a whole in 2000 and as part of this work published the separate conclusion (1999) that all the ''Ya-wi-'' and ''Ya-aḫ-wi-'' elements in these names must be understood to reflect the same root ''ḥwy'', "to live"....If Streck is correct that these are all forms of the verb "to live", then the Amorite personal names must be set aside as useful to any interpretation of the name [Yahweh]." But see {{harvnb|Fleming|2020b|p=425}}: "While the identification of the verbal root in the Amorite names with and without the -''ḫ''- remains impossible to prove with certainty, the parallels with contemporary Old Babylonian Ibašši-DN and the later second-millennium parallels from the verb ''kwn'' show the viability of a West Semitic root ''hwy'', "to be, be evident", for at least some portion of these Amorite names."</ref> In addition, J. Philip Hyatt believes it is more likely that {{tlit|mis|yahwi-}} refers to a god creating and sustaining the life of a newborn child rather than the universe. This conception of God was more popular among ancient Near Easterners but eventually, the Israelites removed the association of {{tlit|mis|yahwi-}} to any human ancestor and combined it with other elements (e.g., {{tlit|hbo|Yahweh ṣəḇāʾōṯ}}).<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Hyatt |first=J. Philip |date=1967 |title=Was Yahweh Originally a Creator Deity? |journal=Journal of Biblical Literature |volume=86 |issue=4 |pages=369–377 |jstor=3262791}}</ref>{{Update inline|date=April 2024|reason=The source is literally almost 60 years old.}} Hillel Ben-Sasson states there is insufficient evidence for Amorites using ''yahwi-'' for gods, but he argues that it mirrors other theophoric names and that ''yahwi-'', or more accurately ''yawi'', derives from the root ''hwy'' in ''pa'al,'' which means "he will be".{{sfn|Ben-Sasson|2019|pp=55–56}}

One scholarly theory is that "Yahweh" originated in a shortened form of {{tlit|hbo|ˀel ḏū yahwī ṣabaˀôt}}, '[[El (deity)|El]] who creates the hosts',{{sfn|Miller|2000|p=2}} which Cross considered to be one of the cultic names of El.{{sfn|Cross|1973|p=71}} However, this phrase is nowhere attested either inside or outside the Bible, and the two gods are in any case quite dissimilar, with El being elderly and paternal and lacking Yahweh's association with the storm and battles.{{sfn|Day|2002|pp=13–14}} Even if the above issues are resolved, Yahweh is generally agreed to have a non-causative etymology because otherwise, YHWH would be translated as YHYH.{{sfn|Lewis|2020|p=222}} It also raises the question of why the Israelites would want to shorten the epithet. One possible reason includes the co-existence of religious modernism and conservatism being the norm in all religions.{{sfn|Lewis|2020|p=222}}

The oldest plausible occurrence of Yahweh's name is in the [[Egyptian language|Egyptian]] [[demonym]] {{tlit|egy|[[wikt:tꜣ-šꜣsw-yhwꜣ|tꜣ šꜣsw Yhwꜣ]]}}, 'YHWA [in] the Land of the [[Shasu]]' ([[Egyptian language|Egyptian]]: {{Script/Egyp|{{lang|egy|𓇌𓉔𓍯𓄿}}}} {{tlit|egy|Yhwꜣ}}) in an inscription from the time of [[Amenhotep III]] (1390–1352{{nbsp}}BCE),{{sfn|Shalomi Hen|2021}}{{sfn|Anderson|2015|p=100}} the [[Shasu]] being nomads from [[Midian]] and [[Edom]] in northern Arabia.{{sfn|Grabbe|2007|p=151}} Although it is still uncertain whether a relationship exists between the toponym ''yhwꜣ'' and theonym ''YHWH'',<ref>{{harvnb|Shalomi Hen|2021}}: "Unfortunately, albeit the interesting analogies, the learned discussions, and the broad perspective, the evidence is too scanty to allow any conclusions concerning the exact meaning of the term YHWA/YHA/YH as it appears in Ancient Egyptian records."</ref> the dominant view is that Yahweh was from the southern region associated with [[Mount Seir|Seir]], Edom, [[Desert of Paran|Paran]] and [[Teman (Edom)|Teman]].{{sfn|Smith|2017|p=42}} There is considerable although not universal support for this view,{{sfn|Grabbe|2007|p=153}} but it raises the question of how Yahweh made his way to the north.{{sfn|Van der Toorn|1999|p=912}} An answer many scholars consider plausible is the [[Kenite hypothesis]], which holds that traders brought Yahweh to Israel along the [[Caravan (travellers)|caravan]] routes between [[Ancient Egypt|Egypt]] and [[Canaan]].{{sfn|Van der Toorn|1999|pp=912–913}} This ties together various points of data, such as the absence of Yahweh from Canaan, his links with Edom and Midian in the biblical stories, and the [[Kenite]] or Midianite ties of [[Moses]],{{sfn|Van der Toorn|1999|p=912}} but its major weaknesses are that the majority of Israelites were firmly rooted in [[Palestine (region)|Palestine]], while the historical role of Moses is problematic.{{sfn|Van der Toorn|1995|pp=247–248}} It follows that if the Kenite hypothesis is to be maintained, then it must be assumed that the Israelites encountered Yahweh (and the Midianites/Kenites) inside Israel and through their association with the earliest political leaders of Israel.{{sfn|Van der Toorn|1995|p=248}} Christian Frevel argues that inscriptions allegedly suggesting Yahweh's southern origins (e.g., "YHWH of Teman") may simply denote his presence there at later times, and that Teman can refer to any southern territory, including Judah.<ref name=":0" />

Alternatively, some scholars argue that YHWH worship was rooted in the indigenous culture of the [[Kingdom of Israel (Samaria)|Kingdom of Israel]] and was promoted in the [[Kingdom of Judah]] by the [[Omrides]].<ref name=":0">{{cite journal |last=Frevel |first=Christian |date=2021 |title=When and from Where did YHWH Emerge? Some Reflections on Early Yahwism in Israel and Judah |journal=Entangled Religions |volume=12 |issue=2 |doi=10.46586/er.12.2021.8776 |issn=2363-6696 |doi-access=free |hdl=2263/84039 |hdl-access=free}}</ref><ref name=":3">{{cite journal |title=God's Best 'Frenemy': A New Perspective on YHWH and Baal in Ancient Israel and Judah |journal=Semitica |url=https://www.academia.edu/45062733 |last=Stahl |first=Michael J. |volume=63 |pages=45–94 |doi=10.2143/SE.63.0.3289896 |year=2021 |issn=2466-6815}}</ref> Frevel suggests that [[Hazael]]'s conquests in the Kingdom of Israel forced the two kingdoms to cooperate, which spread YHWH worship among Judean commoners. Previously, YHWH was viewed as the patron god of the Judean <em>state</em>.<ref name=":0" />

===Early Iron Age (1200–1000{{nbsp}}BCE)===
[[File:Bull site statuette.png|thumb|alt=A bronze bull|Early Iron Age bull figurine from [[Bull Site]] at Dhahrat et-Tawileh (modern [[West Bank]], ancient [[Mount Ephraim|Ephraim]]), representing El, Baal or Yahweh{{sfn|Smith|2002|p=83}}{{sfn|Stavrakopoulou|2021|p=395}}]]
In the Early Iron Age, the modern consensus is that there was no distinction in language or [[material culture]] between Canaanites and Israelites. Scholars accordingly define Israelite culture as a subset of Canaanite culture.{{sfn|Smith|2002|pp=7, 19–31}} In this view, the Israelite religion consisted of Canaanite gods such as El, the ruler of the [[Pantheon (religion)|pantheon]],{{sfn|Golden|2009|p=182}} [[Asherah]], his consort, and [[Baal]].{{sfn|Smith|2002|pp=19–31}}

In the earliest Biblical literature, Yahweh has characteristics of a storm god typical of ancient Near Eastern myths, marching out from Edom or the [[Sinai desert]] with the heavenly host of stars and planets that make up his army to do battle with the enemies of his people Israel:{{sfn|Hackett|2001|pp=158–160}}

{{poemquote|Yahweh, when you went out of Seir,
    when you marched out of the field of Edom,
the earth trembled, the sky also dropped.
    Yes, the clouds dropped water.
The mountains quaked at Yahweh's presence,
    even Sinai at the presence of Yahweh, the God of Israel.
...
From the sky the stars fought.
    From their courses, they fought against [[Sisera]].
|[[Book of Judges]] 5:4–5, 20, ''WEB'' [[World English Bible]], the [[Song of Deborah]]}}

Alternatively, parts of the storm god imagery could derive from Baal.{{sfn|Smith|2017|p=38}}<ref name=":3" />{{rp|78}}

From the perspective of the Kenite hypothesis, it has also been suggested that the Edomite deity [[Qōs]] might have been one and the same as Yahweh, rather than a separate deity, with its name a title of the latter.{{sfn|Anderson|2015|p=101}} Aside from their common territorial origins, various common characteristics between the [[Yahwism|Yahwist cult]] and the Edomite cult of Qōs hint at a shared connection.<ref name="Manyanya">{{Cite book |last=Manyanya |first=Lévi Ngangura |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=kiR_xkWUFS4C&pg=PA258 |title=La fraternité de Jacob et d'Esaü (Gn 25–36): quel frère aîné pour Jacob? |date=2009 |publisher=Labor et Fides |isbn=978-2-8309-1253-1 |page=257 |language=fr}}</ref> [[Doeg the Edomite]], for example, is depicted as having no problem in worshiping Yahweh and is shown to be at home in Jewish sanctuaries.<ref name="Manyanya" />

Unlike the chief god of the [[Ammon]]ites ([[Milcom]]) and the [[Moabites]] ([[Chemosh]]), the [[Tanakh]] refrains from explicitly naming the Edomite Qōs.<ref>E. A. Knauf. (1999). Qos [in] Karel van der Toorn, Bob Becking, Pieter Willem van der Horst [eds.], [https://books.google.com/books?id=yCkRz5pfxz0C&pg=PA677 ''Dictionary of Deities and Demons in the Bible''], pp. 674–677. Wm. B. Eerdmans. p. 677. "This clan or family must have been of Edomite or Idumaean origin."</ref><ref>Elie Assis, [https://books.google.com/books?id=_jQLEAAAQBAJ&pg=PA10 ''Identity in Conflict: The Struggle between Esau and Jacob, Edom and Israel''], [[Penn State Press]], 2016 {{isbn|978-1-575-06418-5}} p.10: "At 1 Kgs 1–8 there is exceptionally no mention of any Edomite gods: 'King Solomon loved many foreign women along with the daughter of the Pharaoh: Moabite, Ammonite, Edomite, Sidonian, and Hittite women. ... For Solomon followed Astarte the goddess of the Sidonians, and Milcom the aboimination of the Ammonites. ... Then Solomon built a high place for Chemosh the abomination of Moab, and for Molech the abomination of the Ammonites, on the mountain east of Jerusalem. He did the same for all his foreign wives, who offered incense and sacrificed to their gods.{{'"}}</ref> Some scholars have explained this notable omission by assuming that the level of similarity between Yahweh and Qōs would have made rejection of the latter difficult.{{sfn|Dicou|1994|p=177}} Other scholars hold that Yahweh and Qōs were different deities from their origins, and suggest that the tensions between Judeans and Edomites during the Second Temple period may lie behind the omission of Qōs in the Bible.{{sfn|Tebes|2023}}

===Late Iron Age (1000–586{{nbsp}}BCE)===
{{multiple image
 | width = 200
 | align = right
 | direction = vertical
 | image1 =LMLK, Ezekiah seals.jpg
 | caption1 = Seal of [[Hezekiah]], 727 to 698. The [[winged disk]] is thought to represent Yahweh.<ref name="SeeversKorhonen">{{Cite journal |last1=Seevers |first1=Boyd V. |last2=Korhonen |first2=Rachel |date=2016 |title=Seals in Ancient Israel and the Near East: Their Manufacture, Use, and Apparent Paradox of Pagan Symbolism |url=https://www.academia.edu/31049725 |journal=Near East Archaeological Society Bulletin |issue=61 |pages=1–17}}</ref>
 | image2 = Brockhaus and Efron Jewish Encyclopedia e12 486-1.jpg
 | caption2 = [[Winged disk]] seal reproduced in the [[Jewish Encyclopedia]], 1906
}}

[[File:Ajrud.jpg|thumb|alt=A reconstructed two-handled jar, with many missing fragments. In the centre, two bull-headed figures look towards us. There are other figures and the scene is hard to make out.|Painting on a [[Kuntillet Ajrud inscriptions|jar found at Kuntillet Ajrud]], under the inscription "Yahweh of Samaria and his Asherah" (c.{{nbsp}}800{{nbsp}}BCE)]]

The late [[Iron Age]] saw the emergence of [[nation state]]s associated with specific [[national god]]s:{{sfn|Schniedewind|2013|p=93}} Chemosh was the god of the Moabites, Milcom the god of the Ammonites, Qōs the god of the Edomites, and Yahweh the god of the Israelites.{{sfn|Hackett|2001|p=156}}{{sfn|Davies|2010|p=112}} In each kingdom the king was also the head of the national religion and thus the [[viceroy]] on Earth of the national god.{{sfn|Miller|2000|p=90}} Yahweh filled the role of national god in both the Kingdom of Israel, which emerged in the 10th century BCE, and in Kingdom of Judah, which may have emerged a century later{{sfn|Geller|2012|p=unpaginated}} (no "God of Judah" is mentioned anywhere in the Bible).{{sfn|Hackett|2001|p=156}}{{sfn|Davies|2010|p=112}}

Accordingly, there have been different tiers of deities in the original pantheon: El and Asherah on top; followed by [[Sons of God#Ugaritic text|their children]], the divine assembly; then followed by traders and craftsman deities; and finally minor deities or messenger gods.{{sfn|Hess|2007|pp=103–104}} It has been argued that Yahweh was originally described as one of the sons of El in [[Song of Moses|Deuteronomy 32:8–9]],{{sfn|Smith|2002|pages=32–33}}{{sfn|Miller|Hayes|1986|p=111}} and that this was removed by a later emendation to the text:{{sfn|Anderson|2015|p=77}}

{{Poem quote|When the Most High gave the nations their inheritance,
 when he divided up humankind,
he set the boundaries of the peoples,
 according to the number of the heavenly assembly.
For the Lord's allotment is his people,
 [[Jacob]] is his special possession.
|[[Book of Deuteronomy]]  32:8–9, [[New English Translation]], [[Song of Moses]]}}

However, at some point the second tier collapsed, whereupon Yahweh became conflated with El, even though El was the original head of the pantheon. The remaining deities then became [[angel]]s.{{sfn|Hess|2007|pp=103–104}}{{When|date=May 2025|reason=When did this conflation happen? When did these deities become angels?}} During the reign of [[Ahab]], and particularly following his marriage to [[Jezebel]], Baal may have briefly replaced Yahweh as the national god of Israel (but not Judah).{{sfn|Smith|2002|pp=71–72}}{{sfn|Campbell|2001|pp=221–222}}

In the 9th century{{nbsp}}BCE, there are indications of rejection of Baal worship associated with the prophets [[Elijah]] and [[Elisha]]. The Yahweh-religion thus began to separate itself from its Canaanite heritage; this process continued over the period from 800 to 500{{nbsp}}BCE with legal and prophetic condemnations of the [[asherim]], [[sun worship]] and worship on the [[high place]]s, along with practices pertaining to the dead and other aspects of the old religion.{{sfn|Smith|2002|page=9}} Features of Baal, El, and Asherah were absorbed into Yahweh, and epithets such as [[El Shaddai]] came to be applied to Yahweh alone.{{sfn|Smith|2002|pp=8, 33–34, 135}}

In this atmosphere a struggle emerged between those who believed that Yahweh alone should be worshipped, and those who worshipped him within a larger group of gods;{{sfn|Sperling|2017|p=254}} the Yahweh-alone party, the party of the [[prophet]]s and [[Deuteronomist]]s, ultimately triumphed, and their victory lies behind the biblical narrative of an Israel vacillating between periods of "following other gods" and periods of [[fidelity]] to Yahweh.{{sfn|Sperling|2017|p=254}}

Some scholars date the start of widespread monotheism to the [[8th century BCE]], and view it as a response to [[Neo-Assyrian]] aggression.{{sfn|Smith|2016|p=287}}{{sfn|Albertz|1994|p=61}} In an inscription discovered in [[Ein Gedi]] and dated around 700 BCE, Yahweh appears described as the lord of "the nations", while in [[Khirbet Beit Lei graffiti|other contemporary texts]] discovered in [[Khirbet Beit Lei]] (near Lachish) he is mentioned as the ruler of Jerusalem and probably also of Judah.{{sfn|Hess|2020|p=247–248}}

=== Monolatrous movements (9th–1st centuries{{nbsp}}BCE)===
The earliest monotheistic movements among Yahwists appear in the 9th–8th centuries{{nbsp}}BCE, during the time of Elijah and [[Hosea]].{{sfn|Albertz|1994|p=61}} By ascending to the role of the "Lord of the Land" ({{tlit|hbo|adon}}), he also absorbs the functions of earlier deities, such as Baal and El.{{sfn|Albertz|1994|p=89}} However, this depiction of Yahweh had only marginal impact under [[Josiah]], and did not become lasting until the exilic and [[post-exilic]] period.{{sfn|Albertz|1994|p=61}}{{efn|These movements are rather described as [[monolatristic]] rather than [[monotheistic]], since they did accept the existence of other gods besides Yahweh, although postulating the worship of Yahweh alone.{{sfn|McKenzie|1990|p=1287}}}} Only in the post-exilic and [[Prophetic books|prophetic writings]], and under influence of [[Zoroastrianism]], Yahweh becomes a distant and more merciful supreme deity.<ref name="The Encyclopedia of Religion">{{cite encyclopedia |title=Angels |encyclopedia=The Encyclopedia of Religion |volume=1 |page=[https://archive.org/details/encyclopediaofre01elia/page/283 283] |publisher=Macmillan |publication-place=New York |date=1986 |isbn=0-02-909700-2 |url=https://archive.org/details/encyclopediaofre01elia}}</ref> It is also only then that ''Elohim'', a term previously referring to the Canaanite High God, becomes an alternative designation for Yahweh.<ref>Edelman, D. V. (Ed.). (1995). The Triumph of Elohim: From Yahwisms to Judaisms (Vol. 13). Peeters Publishers. pp. 22–23</ref> This reconsideration of the former pantheon derives from the monotheistic concept of Persian beliefs at the time,<ref>Edelman, D. V. (Ed.). (1995). The Triumph of Elohim: From Yahwisms to Judaisms (Vol. 13). Peeters Publishers. p. 23</ref> as generally agreed upon by scholars.<ref>Sacchi, Paolo. "The history of the second temple period." (2004): 10</ref>

In the national crisis of the [[Babylonian exile]], Yahweh is described as the sole deity and absorbs all attributes of previous gods and goddesses.{{sfn|Betz|2000|p=917}} The notion of Yahweh as a supreme deity is described in the 6th-century{{nbsp}}BCE [[Second Isaiah]].{{sfn|Rosenberg|1966|p=297}}{{sfn|Albani|2020|p=226}} The author's praise for Yahweh is motivated by restoring Israel's confidence into their own historical gods against the deities of their Babylonian enemies.{{sfn|Albani|2020|pp=226-228}} The claim for monotheism is directed against the deities of [[Nebuchadnezzar II]], who founded his reign on [[Marduk]] and [[Nabu]].{{sfn|Albani|2020|pp=226–228}} The transition was a gradual one and was not totally accomplished during the First Temple period.<ref name=":1">{{Cite book |last1=Taliaferro |first1=Charles |title=The Routledge Companion to Theism |last2=Harrison |first2=Victoria S. |last3=Goetz |first3=Stewart |publisher=Routledge |year=2012}}</ref>{{Page needed|date=April 2024}} At least some Jews seem to have worshipped Yahweh and [[Anath]] as distinct from Asherah and El during the 5th century{{nbsp}}BCE.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Patai |first=Raphael |title=The God Yahweh-Elohim |journal=American Anthropologist |publisher=American Anthropological Association, Wiley |volume=75 |issue=4 |year=1973 |issn=0002-7294 |jstor=673271 |pages=1181–1184}}</ref>

Under [[Hellenistic religion|Hellenistic]] influence, Yahwistic beliefs became more exclusive.<ref>Sacchi, Paolo. "The history of the second temple period." (2004): 10</ref><ref>Edelman, D. V. (Ed.). (1995). The Triumph of Elohim: From Yahwisms to Judaisms (Vol. 13). Peeters Publishers. p. 23</ref> These beliefs rejected the idea of lesser deities and emanations of deities in favor of Yahweh as an abstract single god.<ref>Edelman, D. V. (Ed.). (1995). The Triumph of Elohim: From Yahwisms to Judaisms (Vol. 13). Peeters Publishers. p. 23</ref> During the [[Hellenistic period]], the scriptures were translated into Greek by the Jews of the [[History of the Jews in Egypt|Egyptian diaspora]].{{sfn|Coogan|Brettler|Newsom|2007|p=xxvi}} Greek translations of the Hebrew scriptures render both the names ''Yahweh'' and {{tlit|hbo|adonai}} as {{tlit|grc|[[kyrios]]}} ({{lang|grc|κύριος}}), meaning 'Lord'.{{sfn|Leech|2002|p=60}} Jewish tradition celebrated Yahweh's name at least once a year at the temple by the High Priests at the Day of Atonement.{{sfn|Leech|2002|pp=59–60}} However, after the destruction of the Second Temple, Yahweh's name ceased to be used.{{sfn|Leech|2002|pp=59–60}}

The ''[[Secret Book of John]]'' reinterpreted the Genesis story under Hellenistic influence and proposes that Eve copulated with [[Yaldabaoth]] and gave birth to two sons: Abel and Cain, identified with ''Elohim'' and Yahweh respectively.<ref>Pearson, Birger A. Gnosticism, Judaism, and Egyptian Christianity. Fortress Press, 1990. pp. 100–102</ref> The former is said to be righteous and the latter injust. By murdering his brother, and corrupted by his father, he brings envy and death into the world.<ref>Pearson, Birger A. Gnosticism, Judaism, and Egyptian Christianity. Fortress Press, 1990. pp. 100–102</ref>