Editing Xiongnu (section)

== History ==
{{see also|Timeline of the Xiongnu}}

=== Predecessors===
{{ Annotated image 
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{{Annotation|260|15|[[Afanasievo culture|{{ubl|Afanasievo | culture}}]]|text-align=center|font-weight=bold|font-style=normal|font-size=7|color=#FF4500}}
{{Annotation|315|35|[[Ancient Northeast Asian|<span style="color:#4F311CFF">'''''{{ubl|Ancient Northeast|Asians}}'''''</span>]]|text-align=center|font-weight=bold|font-style=normal|font-size=7|color=#000000}}
| caption=Early [[Indo-European migrations]] from the [[Pontic steppes]] and across Central Asia, and encounter with [[Ancient Northeast Asian]] populations.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Narasimhan |first1=Vagheesh M. |last2=Patterson |first2=Nick |last3=Moorjani |first3=Priya |last4=Rohland |first4=Nadin |last5=Bernardos |first5=Rebecca |title=The formation of human populations in South and Central Asia |journal=Science |date=6 September 2019 |volume=365 |issue=6457 |issn=0036-8075 |doi=10.1126/science.aat7487 |pmid=31488661 |pmc=6822619 |doi-access=free}}</ref>
}}
The territories associated with the Xiongnu in central/east Mongolia were previously inhabited by the [[Slab Grave Culture]] ([[Ancient Northeast Asian]] origin), which persisted until the 3rd century BC.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Khenzykhenova |first1=Fedora I. |last2=Kradin |first2=Nikolai N. |last3=Danukalova |first3=Guzel A. |last4=Shchetnikov |first4=Alexander A. |last5=Osipova |first5=Eugenia M. |last6=Matveev |first6=Arkady N. |last7=Yuriev |first7=Anatoly L. |last8=Namzalova |first8=Oyuna D. -Ts |last9=Prokopets |first9=Stanislav D. |last10=Lyashchevskaya |first10=Marina A. |last11=Schepina |first11=Natalia A. |last12=Namsaraeva |first12=Solonga B. |last13=Martynovich |first13=Nikolai V. |title=The human environment of the Xiongnu Ivolga Fortress (West Trans-Baikal area, Russia): Initial data |journal=Quaternary International |date=30 April 2020 |volume=546 |pages=216–228 |doi=10.1016/j.quaint.2019.09.041 |bibcode=2020QuInt.546..216K |s2cid=210787385 |url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S1040618219307918 |language=en |issn=1040-6182}} "The slab graves culture existed in this territory prior to the Xiongnu empire. Sites of this culture dating back to approximately 1100-400/300 BC are common in Mongolia and the Trans-Baikal area. The earliest calibrated dates are prior to 1500 BC (Miyamoto et al., 2016). Later dates are usually 100–200 years earlier than the Xiongnu culture. Therefore, it is customarily considered that the slab grave culture preceded the Xiongnu culture. There is only one case, reported by Miyamoto et al. (2016), in which the date of the slab grave corresponds to the time of the making of the Xiongnu Empire."</ref> Genetic research indicates that the Slab Grave people were the primary ancestors of the Xiongnu, and that the Xiongnu formed through substantial and complex mixture with West Eurasians.<ref>{{harvnb|Rogers|Kaestle|2022}}</ref>

During the [[Western Zhou]] (1045–771 BC), there were numerous conflicts with nomadic tribes from the north and the northwest, variously known as the [[Xianyun]], [[Guifang]], or various "Rong" tribes, such as the [[Xirong]], [[Shanrong]] or [[Quanrong]].<ref name="WT"/> These tribes are recorded as harassing Zhou territory, but at the time the Zhou were expanding northwards, encroaching on their traditional lands, especially into the [[Wei River|Wei River valley]]. Archaeologically, the Zhou expanded to the north and the northwest at the expense of the [[Siwa culture]].<ref name="WT">{{cite book |last1=Tse |first1=Wicky W. K. |title=The Collapse of China's Later Han Dynasty, 25-220 CE: The Northwest Borderlands and the Edge of Empire |date=27 June 2018 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-1-315-53231-8 |pages=[https://books.google.com/books?id=-y9iDwAAQBAJ&pg=PT45 45–46], [https://books.google.com/books?id=-y9iDwAAQBAJ&pg=PT63 63 note 40] |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=-y9iDwAAQBAJ&pg=PT45 |language=en}}</ref> The Quanrong put an end to the Western Zhou in 771 BC, sacking the Zhou capital of [[Haojing]] and killing the last Western Zhou king [[King You of Zhou|You]].<ref name="WT"/> Thereafter the task of dealing with the northern tribes was left to their vassal, the [[Qin (state)|Qin state]].<ref name="WT"/>

To the west, the [[Pazyryk culture]] (6th–3rd century BC) immediately preceded the formation of the Xiongnus.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Linduff |first1=Katheryn M. |last2=Rubinson |first2=Karen S. |title=Pazyryk Culture Up in the Altai |date=2021 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-0-429-85153-7 |page=69 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=RAdUEAAAQBAJ&pg=PT69 |quote="The rise of the confederation of the Xiongnu, in addition, clearly affected this region as it did most regions of the Altai"}}</ref> A [[Scythian cultures|Scythian]] culture,<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.britannica.com/place/Pazyryk |title=Pazyryk {{pipe}} archaeological site, Kazakhstan |publisher=Britannica.com |date=11 September 2001 |access-date=5 March 2019}}</ref> it was identified by excavated artifacts and mummified humans, such as the [[Siberian Ice Maiden]], found in the [[Siberia]]n [[permafrost]], in the [[Altai Mountains]], [[Kazakhstan]] and nearby [[Mongolia]].<ref>{{harvnb|State Hermitage Museum|2007}}</ref> To the south, the [[Ordos culture]] had developed in the [[Ordos Loop]] (modern [[Inner Mongolia]], [[China]]) during the [[Bronze Age|Bronze]] and early [[Iron Age]] from the 6th to 2nd centuries BC. Of unknown ethno-linguistic origin, it is thought to represent the easternmost extension of Indo-European-speakers.<ref>{{harvnb|Whitehouse|2016|p=369}}: "From that time until the HAN dynasty the Ordos steppe was the home of semi-nomadic Indo-European peoples whose culture can be regarded as an eastern province of a vast Eurasian continuum of Scytho-Siberian cultures."</ref><ref name="Harmatta348">{{harvnb|Harmatta|1992|p=348}}: "From the first millennium b.c., we have abundant historical, archaeological and linguistic sources for the location of the territory inhabited by the Iranian peoples. In this period the territory of the northern Iranians, they being equestrian nomads, extended over the whole zone of the steppes and the wooded steppes and even the semi-deserts from the Great Hungarian Plain to the Ordos in northern China."</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Unterländer |first1=Martina |last2=Palstra |first2=Friso |last3=Lazaridis |first3=Iosif |last4=Pilipenko |first4=Aleksandr |last5=Hofmanová |first5=Zuzana |last6=Groß |first6=Melanie |last7=Sell |first7=Christian |last8=Blöcher |first8=Jens |last9=Kirsanow |first9=Karola |last10=Rohland |first10=Nadin |last11=Rieger |first11=Benjamin |date=3 March 2017 |title=Ancestry and demography and descendants of Iron Age nomads of the Eurasian Steppe |journal=[[Nature Communications]] |volume=8 |page=14615 |issn=2041-1723 |doi=10.1038/ncomms14615 |pmc=5337992 |pmid=28256537 |bibcode=2017NatCo...814615U}}</ref> The [[Yuezhi]] were displaced by the Xiongnu expansion in the 2nd century BC, and had to migrate to Central and Southern Asia.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Benjamin |first1=Craig |title=The Yuezhi |url=https://oxfordre.com/view/10.1093/acrefore/9780190277727.001.0001/acrefore-9780190277727-e-49 |website=Oxford Research Encyclopedia of Asian History |doi=10.1093/acrefore/9780190277727.013.49 |date=29 March 2017 |isbn=978-0-19-027772-7 }}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=Bang |first1=Peter Fibiger |last2=Bayly |first2=C. A. |last3=Scheidel |first3=Walter |title=The Oxford World History of Empire: Volume Two: The History of Empires |date=2 December 2020 |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-19-753278-2 |page=330 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=6GkLEAAAQBAJ&pg=PA330 |via=[[Google Books]]}}</ref>

=== Early history ===
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| image1            = Buckle boar hunting NMAT 48-8 n06 (composite).jpg
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| footer            = A nomad horseman spearing a boar, discovered in [[Saksanokhur]], [[Tajikistan|South Tajikistan]], 1st–2nd century AD.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Marshak |first1=Boris Ilʹich |title=Peerless Images: Persian Painting and Its Sources |date=1 January 2002 |publisher=Yale University Press |isbn=978-0-300-09038-3 |page=9 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=XUyajzkDJ50C&pg=PA9 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |date=1997 |last1=Ilyasov |first1=Jangar Ya. |last2=Rusanov |first2=Dmitriy V. |title=A Study on the Bone Plates from Orlat|language =en |issn=0917-1614|journal=Silk Road Art and Archaeology |volume= 5 |publisher=The Institute of Silk Road Studies |location=Kamakura, Japan |issue=1997/98 |pages=107–159 |quote-page=127 |quote=The image on this belt-buckle represents a rider striking a wild boar with a spear. |url=https://www.academia.edu/7847889}}</ref> According to [[Henri-Paul Francfort|Francfort]], [[Saksanokhur gold buckle|this decorative belt buckle]] may have been made for a patron related to the Xiongnu, and may be dated to the 2nd-1st century BC. The rider wears the steppe dress, his hair is tied into a hairbun characteristic of the oriental steppes, and his horse has characteristically Xiongnu [[horse trappings]].<ref name="HPF">{{cite journal |last1=Francfort |first1=Henri-Paul |author-link=Henri-Paul Francfort |title=Sur quelques vestiges et indices nouveaux de l'hellénisme dans les arts entre la Bactriane et le Gandhāra (130 av. J.-C.-100 apr. J.-C. environ) |trans-title=On some vestiges and new indications of Hellenism in the arts between Bactria and Gandhāra (130 BC-100 AD approximately) |journal=Journal des Savants |date=2020 |pages=35–39 |url=https://www.academia.edu/45042820 |quote=Page 36: "A renowned openwork gold plate found on the surface of the site depicts a wild boar hunt at the spear by a rider in steppe dress, in a frame of ovals arranged in cells intended to receive inlays (fig. 14). We can today attribute it to a local craft whose intention was to satisfy a horserider patron originating from the distant steppes and related to the Xiongnu" (French: "On peut aujourd'hui l'attribuer à un art local dont l'intention était de satisfaire un patron cavalier originaire des steppes lointaines et apparenté aux Xiongnu."){{pb}}p. 36: "We can also clearly distinguish the crupper adorned with three rings forming a chain, as well as, on the shoulder of the mount, a very recognizable clip-shaped pendant, suspended from a chain passing in front of the chest and going up to the pommel of the saddle, whose known parallels are not to be found among the Scythians but in the realm of the Xiongnu, on bronze plaques from Mongolia and China" (French: "les parallèles connus ne se trouvent pas chez les Scythes mais dans le domaine des Xiongnu").{{pb}}p. 38: "The hairstyle of the hunter, with long hair pulled back and gathered in a bun, is also found at [[Takht-i Sangin]]; it is that of the eastern steppes, which can be seen on [[:File:Steppes horseman hunting.jpg|the wild boar hunting plaque "des Iyrques"]] (fig. 15)" (French: La coiffure du chasseur, aux longs cheveux tirés en arrière et rassemblés en chignon, se retrouve à [[Takht-i Sangin]]; C'est celle des steppes orientales, que l'on remarque sur les plaques de la chasse au sanglier «des Iyrques» (fig. 15)}}</ref>
}}
[[Han dynasty#Western Han|Western Han]] historian [[Sima Qian]] composed an early yet detailed exposition on the Xiongnu in one ''liezhuan'' (arrayed account) of his ''[[Records of the Grand Historian]]'' ({{circa|lk=no|100}} BC), wherein the Xiongnu were alleged to be descendants of a certain [[Chunwei]], who in turn descended from the "lineage of Lord Xia", a.k.a. [[Yu the Great]].<ref>"The Account of the Xiongnu, Records of the Grand Historian",Sima Qian.DOI: https://doi.org/10.1163/9789004216358_00</ref><ref>Shiji [https://ctext.org/shiji/xiong-nu-lie-zhuan Ch. 110: Xiongnu liezhuan] quote: "匈奴，其先祖夏后氏之苗裔也，曰淳維。"</ref> Even so, Sima Qian also drew a distinct line between the settled [[Huaxia]] people (Han) to the pastoral nomads (Xiongnu), characterizing them as two polar groups in the sense of a civilization versus an uncivilized society: the [[Hua–Yi distinction]].{{sfn|Di Cosmo|2002|p=2}} Sima Qian also mentioned Xiongnu's early appearance north of [[Yanmen Commandery|Wild Goose Gate]] and [[Dai Commandery|Dai]] commanderies before 265 BC, just before the [[Zhao-Xiongnu War]];<ref>''[[Shiji]]'' [https://zh.wikisource.org/wiki/%E5%8F%B2%E8%A8%98/%E5%8D%B7081#%E9%99%84_%E6%9D%8E%E7%89%A7 Vol. 81 "Stories about Lian Po and Lin Xiangru - Addendum: Li Mu"] text: "李牧者，趙之北邊良將也。常居代鴈門，備匈奴。" translation: "About [[Li Mu]], he was a good general at [[Zhao (state)|Zhao]]'s northern borders. He often stationed at Dai and Wild Goose Gate, prepared [against] the Xiongnu."</ref><ref>Theobald, Ulrich (2019) [http://www.chinaknowledge.de/History/Zhou/personslimu.html "Li Mu 李牧"] in ''ChinaKnowledge.de - An Encyclopaedia on Chinese History, Literature and Art''</ref> however, [[sinologist]] [[Edwin G. Pulleyblank|Edwin Pulleyblank]] (1994) contends that pre-241-BC references to the Xiongnu are anachronistic substitutions for the [[Donghu people|Hu people]] instead.{{sfn|Pulleyblank|1994|pp=518–520}}{{sfn|Schuessler|2014|p=264}} Sometimes the Xiongnu were distinguished from other nomadic peoples; namely, the [[Donghu people|Hu people]];{{sfn|Bunker|2002|pp=27–28}} yet on other occasions, Chinese sources often just classified the Xiongnu as a [[Five Barbarians|''Hu'' people]], which was a blanket term for [[nomadic people]].{{sfn|Pulleyblank|1994|pp=518–520}}{{sfn|Di Cosmo|2002|p=129}} Even Sima Qian was inconsistent: in the chapter "Hereditary House of Zhao", he considered the Donghu to be the Hu proper,<ref name = "hu proper">''Shiji'', [https://ctext.org/shiji/zhao-shi-jia#n6694 "Hereditary House of Zhao"] quote: "今中山在我腹心，北有燕，東有'''胡'''，西有林胡、樓煩、秦、韓之邊，而無彊兵之救，是亡社稷，柰何？" translation: "([[King Wuling of Zhao]] to [http://www.chinaknowledge.de/History/Zhou/personslouhuan.html Lou Huan]:) Now [[Zhongshan (state)|Zhongshan]] is at our heart and belly [note: Zhao surrounded Zhongshan, except on Zhongshan's north-eastern side], [[Yan (state)|Yan]] to the north, '''Hu''' to the east, Forest Hu, [[Loufan_County#Name|Loufan]], [[Qin (state)|Qin]], [[Han (Warring States)|Han]] at our borders to the west. Yet we have no strong army to help us, surely we will lose our country. What is to be done?"</ref><ref name = "ZGC">Compare a parallel passage in ''[[Stratagems of the Warring States]]'', "King Wuling spends his day in idleness", quote: "自常山以至代、上黨，東有燕、'''東胡'''之境，西有樓煩、秦、韓之邊，而無騎射之備。" [https://jenniferdodgson.wixsite.com/warringstates/wuling Jennifer Dodgson's translation]: "From [[Mount Heng (Shanxi)|Mount Chang]] to [[Dai_(Spring_and_Autumn_period)|Dai]] and [[Shangdang Commandery|Shangdang]], our lands border Yan and the '''Donghu''' in the east, and to the west we have the Loufan and shared borders with Qin and Han. Nevertheless, we have no mounted archers ready for action."</ref> yet elsewhere he considered Xiongnu to be also Hu.<ref name = "xiongnu hu">''Shiji'', [https://zh.wikisource.org/wiki/%E5%8F%B2%E8%A8%98/%E5%8D%B7110 Vol. 110 "Account of the Xiongnu"]. quote: "後秦滅六國，而始皇帝使蒙恬將十萬之眾北擊'''胡'''，悉收河南地。…… '''匈奴'''單于曰頭曼，頭曼不勝秦，北徙。" translation: "Later on, Qin conquered the six other states, and the [[Qin Shi Huang|First Emperor]] dispatched general [[Meng Tian]] to lead a multitude of 100,000 north to attack the '''Hu'''; and he took all lands south the Yellow River. [...] The '''Xiongnu''' chanyu was Touman; Touman could not win against Qin, so [they] fled north."</ref>{{sfn|Pulleyblank|1994|pp=518–520}}

Ancient China often came in contact with the [[Xianyun]] and the [[Xirong]] nomadic peoples. In later Chinese historiography, some groups of these peoples were believed to be the possible progenitors of the Xiongnu people.{{sfn|Di Cosmo|2002|p=107}} These nomadic people often had repeated military confrontations with the [[Shang dynasty|Shang]] and especially the [[Zhou dynasty|Zhou]], who often conquered and enslaved the nomads in an expansion drift.{{sfn|Di Cosmo|2002|p=107}} During the [[Warring States period]], the armies from the [[Qin (state)|Qin]], [[Zhao (state)|Zhao]] and [[Yan (state)|Yan]] states were encroaching and conquering various nomadic territories that were inhabited by the Xiongnu and other Hu peoples.{{sfn|Di Cosmo|1999|pp=892–893}}

Pulleyblank argued that the Xiongnu were part of a [[Xirong]] group called [[Yiqu]], who had lived in [[Shaanbei]] and had been influenced by China for centuries, before they were driven out by the [[Qin dynasty]].{{sfn|Pulleyblank|1994|pp=514–523}}{{sfn|Pulleyblank|2000|p=20}} [[Qin's campaign against the Xiongnu]] expanded Qin's territory at the expense of the Xiongnu.{{sfn|Di Cosmo|1999|pp=892–893, 964}} After the unification of Qin dynasty, Xiongnu was a threat to the northern border of Qin. They were likely to attack the Qin dynasty when they suffered natural disasters.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Rawson |first=Jessica |date=2017 |title=China and the steppe: reception and resistance |url=https://www.cambridge.org/core/product/identifier/S0003598X16002763/type/journal_article |journal=[[Antiquity (journal)|Antiquity]] |volume=91 |issue=356 |pages=375–388 |doi=10.15184/aqy.2016.276 |s2cid=165092308 |issn=0003-598X}}</ref>

=== State formation ===
The first known Xiongnu leader was [[Touman]], who reigned between 220 and 209 BC. In 215 BC, Chinese Emperor [[Qin Shi Huang]] sent General [[Meng Tian]] on a [[Qin's campaign against the Xiongnu|military campaign]] against the Xiongnu. Meng Tian defeated the Xiongnu and expelled them from the [[Ordos Plateau|Ordos Loop]], forcing [[Touman]] and the Xiongnu to flee north into the [[Mongolian Plateau]].{{sfn|Beckwith|2009|pp=71–73}} In 210 BC, Meng Tian died, and in 209 BC, Touman's son [[Modu Chanyu|Modu]] became the Xiongnu ''[[Chanyu]]''.

In order to protect the Xiongnu from the threat of the [[Qin dynasty]], [[Modu Chanyu]] united the Xiongnu into a powerful [[confederation]].{{sfn|Di Cosmo|1999|pp=892–893, 964}} This transformed the Xiongnu into a more formidable polity, able to form larger armies and exercise improved strategic coordination. The Qin dynasty fell in 207 BC, and was replaced by the [[Han dynasty#Western Han|Western Han dynasty]] in 202 BC after a period of [[Chu–Han Contention|internal conflict]]. This period of Chinese instability was a time of prosperity for the Xiongnu, who adopted many [[Han Chinese|Han]] agriculture techniques such as slaves for heavy labor and lived in Han-style homes.{{sfn|Bentley|1993|p=38}} 

[[File:Warring_States_Xiongnu_Gold_Crown_-_b.jpg|right|thumb|300px|A gold crown belonging to a Xiongnu king, from the early Xiongnu period. Seen at the top of a crown is an eagle with a turquoise head.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Baumer |first1=Christoph |title=History of Central Asia, The: 4-volume set |date=18 April 2018 |publisher=[[Bloomsbury Publishing]] |isbn=978-1-83860-868-2 |page=4 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=DhiWDwAAQBAJ&pg=RA1-PA4 |language=en |via=[[Google Books]]}}</ref>]]
After forging internal unity, [[Modu Chanyu]] expanded the Xiongnu empire in all directions. To the north he conquered a number of nomadic peoples, including the [[Dingling]] of southern Siberia. He crushed the power of the [[Donghu people]] of eastern Mongolia and Manchuria as well as the [[Yuezhi]] in the [[Hexi Corridor]] of [[Gansu]], where his son, Jizhu, made a [[skull cup]] out of the Yuezhi king. Modu also retook the original homeland of Xiongnu on the [[Yellow River]], which had previously been taken by the Qin general Meng Tian.{{sfn|Di Cosmo|1999|pp=885–966}} Under Modu's leadership, the Xiongnu became powerful enough to threaten the Han dynasty.

In 200 BC, Modu besieged the first Han dynasty emperor [[Emperor Gaozu of Han|Gaozu]] (Gao-Di) with his 320,000-strong army at Peteng Fortress in Baideng (present-day Datong, Shanxi).{{sfn|Bentley|1993|p=36}} After Gaozu (Gao-Di) agreed to all Modu's terms, such as ceding the northern provinces to the Xiongnu and paying annual taxes, he was allowed to leave the siege. Although Gaozu was able to return to his capital Chang'an (present-day [[Xi'an]]), Modu occasionally threatened the Han's northern frontier and finally in 198 BC, a peace treaty was settled.

Xiongnu in their expansion drove their western neighbour Yuezhi from the Hexi Corridor in year 176 BC, killing the Yuezhi king and asserting their presence in the [[Western Regions]].{{sfn|Grousset|1970|pp=[https://archive.org/details/empireofsteppesh00prof/page/19 19, 26–27]}}

By the time of Modu's death in 174 BC, the Xiongnu were recognized as the most prominent of the nomads bordering the Han empire{{sfn|Bentley|1993|p=36}} According to the ''[[Book of Han]]'', later quoted in [[Duan Chengshi]]'s ninth-century ''[[Miscellaneous Morsels from Youyang]]'':
{{blockquote|Also, according to the ''Han shu'', Wang Wu (王烏) and others were sent as envoys to pay a visit to the Xiongnu. According to the customs of the Xiongnu, if the Han envoys did not remove their tallies of authority, and if they did not allow their faces to be tattooed, they could not gain entrance into the yurts. Wang Wu and his company removed their tallies, submitted to tattoo, and thus gained entry. The [[Chanyu|Shanyu]] looked upon them very highly.<ref>{{lang|zh-hant|又《漢書》："使王烏等窺匈奴。法，漢使不去節，不以墨黥面，不得入穹盧。王烏等去節、黥面，得入穹盧，單於愛之。"}} from ''Miscellaneous Morsels from Youyang'', [https://zh.wikisource.org/wiki/%E9%85%89%E9%99%BD%E9%9B%9C%E4%BF%8E/%E5%8D%B7%E5%85%AB Scroll 8] Translation from {{cite journal |last=Reed |first=Carrie E. |title=Tattoo in Early China |journal=Journal of the American Oriental Society |volume=120|issue=3 |pages=360–376 |doi= 10.2307/606008|jstor=606008 |year=2000 }}</ref>}}

=== Xiongnu hierarchy ===
{{See also|Chanyu}}
[[File:Reconstruction of a Xiongnu chief warrior, 2nd century BCE-1st century CE.jpg|thumb|upright|Xiongnu chief, 2nd century BC – 1st century AD. Reconstruction by archaeologist [[A.N. Podushkin]], in the [[Central State Museum of Kazakhstan]].<ref>[[:File:Xiongnu museum label.jpg|Museum notice]]</ref><ref>{{cite conference |last1=Kradin |first1=Nikolay N. |chapter=Some Aspects of Xiongnu History in Archaeological Perspective |series=Competing Narratives between Nomadic People and their Sedentary Neighbours |book-title=Competing Narratives between Nomadic People and their Sedentary Neighbours |conference=7th International Conference on the Medieval History of the Eurasian Steppe |date=23 January 2020 |volume=53 |pages=149–165 |doi=10.14232/sua.2019.53.149-165 |isbn=978-963-306-708-6 |chapter-url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/350175936 |quote=Nonetheless, among archaeologists, there are many supporters of the Xiongnu migration to the West. In recent years, S. Botalov (2009) constructed a broad picture of the migration of the Xiongnu to the Urals, and then Europe. In Kazakhstan, A. N. Podushkin discovered the Arysskaya culture with a distinct stage of Xiongnu influence (2009). Russian archaeologists are actively studying the Hun sites in the Caucasus (Gmyrya 1993; 1995) }} Citing:
* Botalov, S. G. (2009). {{lang|ru|Гунны и турки}} {{transliteration|ru|Gunny i tiurki}} [Huns and Turks]. {{in lang|ru}} Chelyabinsk: Рифей
* Gmyrya, L. B. (1993). {{transliteration|ru|Prikaspiiskiy Dagestan v epokhu velikogo pereseleniia narodov. Mogilniki}} [Caspian Dagestan in the Period of the Great Migration of the Peoples. Burial Places]. {{in lang|ru}} Mahachkala: Dagestan Scientific Center, RAS Press.
* [[Aleksandr Podushkin|Podushkin, A. N.]] (2009). "Xiongnu v Yuznom Kazakhstane". ["Xiongnu in Southern Kazakhstan"]. In: Z. Samashev (ed.) {{transliteration|ru|Nomady kazakhstanskikh stepey: etnosociokulturnye protsessy i kontakty v Evrazii skifo sakskoy epokhi}} [Nomads of the Kazakh Steppes: Ethno-socio-cultural Processes and Contacts in Eurasia of the Scythian-Saka Era]. {{in lang|ru}}. Astana: Ministry of Culture and Information of the Kazakhstan Republic pp. 47‒154</ref>]]
The ruler of the Xiongnu was called the [[Chanyu|''chanyu'']].<ref name=bar81-48>{{cite journal |last=Barfield |first=Thomas J. |title=The Hsiung-nu imperial confederacy: Organization and foreign policy |journal=The Journal of Asian Studies |year=1981 |volume=41 |issue=1 |pages=45–61 |jstor=2055601 |doi=10.2307/2055601 |s2cid=145078285|doi-access=free }}</ref> Under him were the [[Tuqi King|tuqi king]]s.<ref name=bar81-48/> The Tuqi King of the Left was normally the heir presumptive.<ref name=bar81-48/> Below him in the hierarchy were more officials in pairs of left and right: the ''guli'', the army commanders, the great governors, the ''danghu'' and the ''gudu''. Beneath them were the commanders of detachments of one thousand, of one hundred, and of ten men. This nation of nomads, was organized like an army.{{sfn|Grousset|1970|p={{page needed|date=April 2022}}}}

After Modu, later leaders formed a dualistic system of political organisation with the left and right branches of the Xiongnu divided on a regional basis. The ''chanyu'' or ''shanyu'', a ruler equivalent to the [[Emperor of China]], exercised direct authority over the central territory. Longcheng (around the [[Khangai Mountains]], [[Otuken]])<ref>{{cite web | url=https://www.dijitalhoca.com.tr/makale/asya-hun-devleti-buyuk-hun-imparatorlugu-m-o-220-m-s-216-288 | title=ASYA HUN DEVLETİ (BÜYÜK HUN İMPARATORLUĞU) (M.Ö. 220 – M.S.216 ) — Dijital Hoca }}</ref><ref>{{cite web | url=https://www.trtavaz.com.tr/haber/tur/avrasyadan/turklerin-tarihi-baskenti-otuken/617b88b501a30a10a4e18f84# | title=Türklerin tarihî başkenti: Ötüken - Avrasya'dan - Haber }}</ref> ([[Chinese language|Chinese]]: 龍城; [[Mongolian language|Mongolian]]: Luut; lit. "Dragon City") became the annual meeting place and served as the Xiongnu capital.<ref name=yuuu86-384>{{cite book |last=Yü |first=Ying-shih |chapter=Han Foreign Relations |title=The Cambridge History of China, Volume 1: The Ch'in and Han Empires, 221 BC – AD 220 |year=1986 |publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]] |location=Cambridge |isbn=978-0-521-24327-8 |page=384}}</ref> The ruins of Longcheng were found south of [[Ölziit, Arkhangai|Ulziit]] District, [[Arkhangai Province]] in 2017.<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://akipress.com/news:645769:Archeologists_discover_capital_of_Xiongnu_Empire_in_central_Mongolia |title=Archeologists discover capital of Xiongnu Empire in central Mongolia}}</ref>

North of [[Shanxi]] with the Tuqi King of the Left was holding the area north of Beijing and the Tuqi King of the Right was holding the [[Ordos Loop]] area as far as [[Gansu]].{{sfn|Yap|2009|p=liii}}

=== Marriage diplomacy with Han dynasty ===
{{Main|Heqin}}
In the winter of 200 BC, following a Xiongnu [[siege]] of [[Taiyuan]], [[Emperor Gaozu of Han]] personally led a military campaign against [[Modu Chanyu]]. At the [[Battle of Baideng]], he was ambushed, reputedly by Xiongnu cavalry. The emperor was cut off from supplies and reinforcements for seven days, only narrowly escaping capture.

The Han dynasty sent commoner women falsely labeled as "princesses" and members of the Han imperial family to the Xiongnu multiple times when they were practicing [[Heqin]] ({{zh|c=和親|l=harmonious kinship}}) marriage alliances with the Xiongnu in order to avoid sending the emperor's daughters.<ref>{{cite book |last=Lo |first=Ping-cheung |editor1-last=Lo |editor1-first=Ping-cheung |editor2-last=Twiss |editor2-first=Sumner B. |date=2015 |edition=illustrated |title=Chinese Just War Ethics: Origin, Development, and Dissent |series=War, Conflict and Ethics |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=-KlhCQAAQBAJ&dq=han+fake+princess+xiongnu&pg=PA269 |publisher=[[Routledge]] |page=269 |chapter=11 Legalism and offensive realism in the Chinese court debate on defending national security 81 BCE |isbn=978-1-317-58097-3 |quote=There were altogether nine marriages of Han princesses (fake or real) to the Xiongnu during these roughly 60 years (for a complete list of details, see Cui 2007a, 555). We will call this policy Heqin Model One, and, as Ying-shih Yu ... |via=[[Google Books]]}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last=Qian |first=Sima |date=2019 |title=Historical Records 史记: The First and Most Important Biographical General History Book in China |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=m-OGDwAAQBAJ&dq=han+fake+princess+xiongnu&pg=PT902 |publisher=DeepLogic |quote=Liu Jing said: "The Han dynasty was just calm, the soldiers were exhausted by the fire, and the Xiongnu could not be ... If the majesty could not send a big princess, let the royal woman or the fake princess, he I will know that I will ... |via=[[Google Books]]}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last=Chin |first=Tamara T. |date=2020 |title=Savage Exchange: Han Imperialism, Chinese Literary Style, and the Economic Imagination |series=Harvard University Studies in East Asian Law |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=5_YFEAAAQBAJ&dq=han+fake+princess+xiongnu&pg=PA225 |publisher=[[Brill Publishers|BRILL]] |page=225 |isbn=978-1-68417-078-4 |quote=In the Han- Wusun alliance (unlike the Han- Xiongnu heqin agreements) the gifts flowed in the proper direction, ... Thus, while Empress Lü transgressed the heqin marriage in having a false princess sent, Liu Jing's original proposal ... |via=[[Google Books]]}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last=Chin |first=Tamara Ta Lun |date=2005 |title=Savage Exchange: Figuring the Foreign in the Early Han Dynasty |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=hi9PAQAAMAAJ&q=han+fake+princess+xiongnu |publisher=[[University of California, Berkeley]] |pages=66, 73, 74 |quote=Figuring the Foreign in the Early Han Dynasty Tamara Ta Lun Chin ... Emperor Han Wudi's military push to reverse the power relations between Xiongnu and Han stands in stark contrast to the original ... Xiongnu with a false princess. |via=[[Google Books]]}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last=Mosol |first=Lee |date=2013 |title=Ancient History of the Manchuria |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=DyN-AwAAQBAJ&dq=han+fake+princess+xiongnu&pg=PA77 |publisher=X libris Corporation |page=77 |isbn=978-1-4836-6767-6 |quote=... 孝文皇帝 sent a girl as a new wife for the Chanyu as a 'fake princess of Royal family' with a eunuch named '中行 ... The Han lured the Xiongnu chief deep into the China proper town called "馬邑," but Gunchen Chanyu realized the trap ... |via=[[Google Books]]}}</ref> The Han sent these "princesses" to marry Xiongnu leaders in their efforts to stop the border raids. Along with arranged marriages, the Han sent gifts to bribe the Xiongnu to stop attacking.{{sfn|Bentley|1993|p=36}} After the defeat at [[Datong|Pingcheng]] in 200 BC, the Han emperor abandoned a military solution to the Xiongnu threat. Instead, in 198 BC, the courtier {{Interlanguage link multi|Liu Jing (Han dynasty)|zh|3=劉敬 (西漢)|lt=Liu Jing}} was dispatched for negotiations. The peace settlement eventually reached between the parties included a Han princess given in marriage to the ''chanyu''; periodic gifts to the Xiongnu of [[silk]], [[distilled beverage]]s and [[rice]]; equal status between the states; and a [[Great Wall of China|boundary wall]] as a mutual border.

[[File:Belt Buckle LACMA M.76.97.582.jpg|thumb|upright=1.35|left|A traveling nomad family led by a man in belted jacket and trousers, pulling a nomadic cart.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Moorey |first1=P. R. S. (Peter Roger Stuart) |last2=Markoe |first2=Glenn |title=Ancient bronzes, ceramics, and seals: The Nasli M. Heeramaneck Collection of ancient Near Eastern, central Asiatic, and European art, gift of the Ahmanson Foundation |date=1981 |location=Los Angeles, CA |publisher=Los Angeles County Museum of Art |isbn=978-0-87587-100-4 |at=p. 168, item 887 |url=https://archive.org/details/ancientbronzesce00losa/page/168/mode/1up}}</ref> Belt Buckle, Mongolia or southern Siberia, dated to 2nd–1st century BC (Xiongnu period).<ref>{{cite web |title=Belt Buckle LACMA Collections |url=https://collections.lacma.org/node/226294 |website=collections.lacma.org}}</ref><ref name="Prior_SR14_2016_186_195">{{cite journal |last1=Prior |first1=Daniel |title=FASTENING THE BUCKLE: A STRAND OF XIONGNU-ERA NARRATIVE IN A RECENT KIRGHIZ EPIC POEM |journal=The Silk Road |date=2016 |volume=14 |page=191 |url=http://www.silkroadfoundation.org/newsletter/vol14/Prior_SR14_2016_186_195.pdf}}</ref>]]
[[File:Belt plaque with design of wrestling men, Ordos region and western part of North China, 2nd century BC, bronze - Ethnological Museum, Berlin (cropped).jpg|thumb|left|upright=1.35|Belt plaque with design of wrestling men, [[Ordos Plateau|Ordos]] region and western part of North China, 2nd century BC, bronze - Ethnological Museum, Berlin.<ref>{{cite book |last1=So |first1=Jenny F. |last2=Bunker |first2=Emma C. |title=Traders and raiders on China's northern frontier |date=1995 |publisher=Seattle : Arthur M. Sackler Gallery, Smithsonian Institution, in association with University of Washington Press |isbn=978-0-295-97473-6 |pages=22, 90 |url=https://archive.org/details/tradersraiderson00soje/page/22/mode/1up?view=theater}}</ref> According to [[Henri-Paul Francfort|Frankfort]], the wrestlers are Xiongnu, and their horses have Xiongnu-type [[horse trappings]].<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Francfort |first1=Henri-Paul |author-link=Henri-Paul Francfort|title=Sur quelques vestiges et indices nouveaux de l'hellénisme dans les arts entre la Bactriane et le Gandhāra (130 av. J.-C.-100 apr. J.-C. environ) |journal=Journal des Savants |date=2020 |volume=1 |doi=10.3406/jds.2020.6422 |at=p. 37, Fig.16 |url=https://www.academia.edu/45042820|quote="Bronze plaque from northwestern China or south central Interior Mongolia, wrestling Xiongnus, the horses have Xiongnu-type trappings" (French: "Plaque en bronze ajouré du nord-ouest de la Chine ou Mongolie intérieure méridionale centrale, Xiongnu luttant, les chevaux portent des harnachements de «type Xiongnu».")}}</ref>]]
This first treaty set the pattern for relations between the [[Han dynasty|Han]] and the Xiongnu for sixty years. Up to 135&nbsp;BC, the treaty was renewed nine times, each time with an increase in the "gifts" to the Xiongnu Empire. In 192&nbsp;BC, [[Modu Chanyu|Modun]] even asked for the hand of [[Emperor Gaozu of Han]] widow [[Empress Lü Zhi]]. His son and successor, the energetic Jiyu, known as [[Laoshang Chanyu]], continued his father's expansionist policies. Laoshang succeeded in negotiating terms with [[Emperor Wen of Han|Emperor Wen]] for the maintenance of a large scale government sponsored market system.

While the Xiongnu benefited handsomely, from the Chinese perspective marriage treaties were costly, very humiliating and ineffective. Laoshang Chanyu showed that he did not take the peace treaty seriously. On one occasion his scouts penetrated to a point near [[Chang'an]]. In 166 BC he personally led 140,000 cavalry to invade [[Anding Commandery|Anding]], reaching as far as the imperial retreat at Yong. In 158 BC, his successor sent 30,000 cavalry to attack [[Shangdang]] and another 30,000 to [[Yunzhong Commandery|Yunzhong]].{{citation needed|date=April 2014}}

The Xiongnu also [[Heqin#Xiongnu|practiced marriage alliances with Han dynasty officers and officials]] who defected to their side by marrying off sisters and daughters of the ''[[Chanyu]]'' to Han Chinese who joined the Xiongnu and Xiongnu in Han service. The daughter of Laoshang Chanyu (and older sister of [[Junchen]] Chanyu and [[Yizhixie]] Chanyu) was married to the Xiongnu General [[Zhao Xin (general)|Zhao Xin]], the Marquis of Xi who was serving the Han dynasty. The daughter of [[Qiedihou]] Chanyu was married to the [[Han Chinese]] General [[Li Ling]] after he surrendered and defected.<ref>{{citation |title=Aristocratic elites in the Xiongnu empire
|url=https://www.academia.edu/5147439 |first=Nicola |last=di Cosmo |page=31}}</ref><ref name="SimaWatson1993">{{cite book |first1=Qian |last1=Sima |first2=Burton |last2=Watson |title=Records of the Grand Historian: Han dynasty |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=YNlgKEVYdHEC&q=li+guangli+daughter&pg=PA161 |date=January 1993 |publisher=Renditions-[[Columbia University Press]] |isbn=978-0-231-08166-5 |pages=161– |via=[[Google Books]]}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |title=Monumenta Serica |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=8-1wAAAAMAAJ&q=li+guangli+daughter+chanyu|year=2004 |publisher=H. Vetch |page=81 |via=[[Google Books]]}}</ref><ref name="Wakeman1985">{{cite book |first=Frederic E. |last=Wakeman |title=The Great Enterprise: The Manchu Reconstruction of Imperial Order in Seventeenth-century China |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=8nXLwSG2O8AC&pg=PA41 |year=1985 |publisher=[[University of California Press]] |isbn=978-0-520-04804-1 |pages=41– |via=[[Google Books]]}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last=Sima |first=Qian |title=Records of the Grand Historian: Han Dynasty II |year=1993 |url=https://dokumen.pub/records-of-the-grand-historian-han-dynasty-ii-0231081677-9780231081672.html |page=128 |publisher=Columbia University Press |isbn=0-231-08167-7}}</ref> Another Han Chinese General who defected to the Xiongnu was [[Li Guangli]], a general in the [[War of the Heavenly Horses]], who also married a daughter of the [[Hulugu]] Chanyu.<ref>{{cite book |author=Lin Jianming (林剑鸣) |script-title=zh:秦漢史 |trans-title=History of Qin and Han |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=lqfrEY8UW1UC&pg=PA557 |year=1992 |publisher=Wunan Publishing |isbn=978-957-11-0574-1 |pages=557–558 |via=[[Google Books]]}}</ref> The Han Chinese diplomat [[Su Wu]] married a Xiongnu woman given by Li Ling when he was arrested and taken captive.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Hong |first1=Yuan |title=The Sinitic Civilization Book II: A Factual History Through the Lens of Archaeology, Bronzeware, Astronomy, Divination, Calendar and the Annals |date=2018 |publisher=iUniversе |isbn=978-1-5320-5830-1 |page=419 |edition=abridged |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Nay8DwAAQBAJ&pg=PA419}}</ref> Han Chinese explorer [[Zhang Qian]] married a Xiongnu woman and had a child with her when he was taken captive by the Xiongnu.<ref name="James A. Millward 2007 20">{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=8FVsWq31MtMC&q=zhang+qian+wife&pg=PA20 |title=Eurasian crossroads: a history of Xinjiang |first=James A. |last=Millward |year=2007 |publisher=[[Columbia University Press]] |isbn=978-0-231-13924-3 |page=20 |access-date=17 April 2011 |via=[[Google Books]]}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |title=The Great Wall: China Against the World, 1000 BC – AD 2000 |first=Julia |last=Lovell |year=2007 |publisher=[[Grove Press]] |isbn=978-0-8021-4297-9 |page=73 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=IWS53cuiuVgC&q=zhang+xiongnu+wife+children+managed+to+escape&pg=PA73 |access-date=17 April 2011 |via=[[Google Books]]}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=QJsx7eQ0rwAC&q=zhang+qian+wife |title=The Human Record: To 1700 |first1=Alfred J. |last1=Andrea |first2=James H. |last2=Overfield |year=1998 |publisher=[[Houghton Mifflin]] |isbn=978-0-395-87087-7 |page=165 |access-date=17 April 2011 |via=[[Google Books]]}}</ref><ref name="Yiping Zhang 2005 22">{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=35L3Ww72M-YC&q=zhang+qian+wife&pg=PA22|title=Story of the Silk Road |first=Yiping |last=Zhang |year=2005 |publisher=[[:zh:五洲传播出版社|China Intercontinental Press]] |page=22 |isbn=978-7-5085-0832-0 |access-date=17 April 2011}}</ref><ref name="Charles Higham 2004 409">{{cite book |title=Encyclopedia of ancient Asian civilizations |first=Charles |last=Higham |year=2004 |publisher=[[Infobase Publishing]] |isbn=978-0-8160-4640-9 |page=409 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=H1c1UIEVH9gC&q=zhang+qian+wife&pg=PA409 |access-date=17 April 2011 |via=[[Google Books]]}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=3EyBAAAAMAAJ&q=123+BC+with+his+Xiongnu+wife+and+the+slave+Ganfu |title=Man and environment, Volume 23, Issue 1 |author1=Indian Society for Prehistoric |author2=Quaternary Studies |name-list-style=amp |year=1998|publisher=Indian Society for Prehistoric and Quaternary Studies |page=6 |access-date=17 April 2011 |via=[[Google Books]]}}</ref><ref name="Mayor2014">{{cite book |first=Adrienne |last=Mayor |title=The Amazons: Lives and Legends of Warrior Women across the Ancient World |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=rboWBAAAQBAJ&pg=PA422 |date=22 September 2014 |publisher=[[Princeton University Press]] |isbn=978-1-4008-6513-0 |pages=422– |via=[[Google Books]]}}</ref>

The [[khagan]]s of the [[Yenisei Kyrgyz Khaganate]] claimed descent from the Chinese general [[Li Ling]], grandson of the [[Han dynasty]] general [[Li Guang]].<ref>{{cite book |access-date=8 February 2012 |title=The role of women in the Altaic world: Permanent International Altaistic Conference, 44th meeting, Walberberg, 26-31 August 2001|editor=Veronika Veit |edition=illustrated |volume=152 |series=Asiatische Forschungen |year=2007 |publisher=Otto Harrassowitz Verlag |isbn=978-3-447-05537-6 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=OBEIq8kTQBcC&pg=PA61 |page=61 |via=[[Google Books]]}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |access-date=8 February 2012 |title=Tang China and the collapse of the Uighur Empire: a documentary history |first=Michael Robert |last=Drompp |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=NB6DEdAxLOsC&pg=PA126 |edition=illustrated |volume=13 |series=Brill's Inner Asian library |year=2005 |publisher=[[Brill Publishers|BRILL]] |isbn=90-04-14129-4 |page=126 |via=[[Google Books]]}}</ref><ref name="Kyzlasov">{{cite book |last=Kyzlasov |first=Leonid R. |date=2010 |title=The Urban Civilization of Northern and Innermost Asia Historical and Archaeological Research |url=http://nbdrx.ru/pdf/bx00000168.pdf |id=Florilegium magistrorum historiae archaeologiaeque Antiqutatis et Medii Aevi |series=Curatores seriei Victor Spinei et Ionel Candeâ VII |publisher=Romanian Academy Institute of Archaeology of Iaşi Editura Academiei Romane - Editura Istros |page=245 |isbn=978-973-27-1962-6}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last=Drompp |first=Michael |date=2021 |title=Tang China and the Collapse of the Uighur Empire: A Documentary History |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=5oZSEAAAQBAJ&dq=%22it+is+interesting+to+see+how+the+Kirghiz+apparently+had+retained+a+tradition+of+historical+memory%22&pg=PA126 |series=Brill's Inner Asian Library |publisher=[[Brill Publishers|BRILL]] |page=126 |isbn=978-90-474-1478-0 |via=[[Google Books]]}}</ref> Li Ling was captured by the Xiongnu and defected in the first century BC.<ref>{{Cite book |title=The role of women in the Altaic world: Permanent International Altaistic Conference, 44th meeting, Walberberg, 26-31 August 2001 |date=2007 |publisher=Harrassowitz |last=Veit |first=Veronika |isbn=978-3-447-05537-6 |location=Wiesbaden |page=61 |oclc=182731462}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last=Drompp |first=Michael R. |date=1999 |title=Breaking the Orkhon Tradition: Kirghiz Adherence to the Yenisei Region after A. D. 840 |journal=Journal of the American Oriental Society |volume=119 |issue=3 |pages=394–395 |doi=10.2307/605932 |jstor=605932}}</ref> And since the Tang royal Li family also claimed descent from Li Guang, the Kirghiz Khagan was therefore recognized as a member of the Tang Imperial family. This relationship soothed the relationship when Kyrgyz khagan [[Are Khagan|Are]] (阿熱) invaded [[Uyghur Khaganate]] and executed Qasar Qaghan. The news brought to [[Chang'an]] by Kyrgyz ambassador Zhuwu Hesu (註吾合素).

=== Han–Xiongnu war ===
{{Main|Han–Xiongnu War}}
[[File:Han Civilisation.png|thumb|upright=1.15|The [[Han dynasty]] in 2 AD]]
The [[Han dynasty]] made preparations for war when the [[Emperor Wu of Han|Han Emperor Wu]] dispatched the Han Chinese explorer [[Zhang Qian]] to explore the mysterious kingdoms to the west and to form an alliance with the Yuezhi people in order to combat the Xiongnu. During this time Zhang married a Xiongnu wife, who bore him a son, and gained the trust of the Xiongnu leader.<ref name="James A. Millward 2007 20"/><ref>{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=IWS53cuiuVgC&q=zhang+xiongnu+wife+children+managed+to+escape&pg=PA73 |title=The Great Wall: China Against the World, 1000 BC – AD 2000 |first=Julia |last=Lovell |year=2007 |publisher=[[Grove Press]] |isbn=978-0-8021-4297-9 |page=73 |access-date=17 April 2011 |via=[[Google Books]]}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=QJsx7eQ0rwAC&q=zhang+qian+wife |title=The Human Record: To 1700 |first1=Alfred J. |last1=Andrea |first2=James H. |last2=Overfield |year=1998 |publisher=[[Houghton Mifflin]] |isbn=978-0-395-87087-7 |page=165 |access-date=17 April 2011 |via=[[Google Books]]}}</ref><ref name="Yiping Zhang 2005 22"/><ref name="Charles Higham 2004 409"/><ref>{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=3EyBAAAAMAAJ&q=123+BC+with+his+Xiongnu+wife+and+the+slave+Ganfu |title=Man and environment, Volume 23, Issue 1 |author1=Indian Society for Prehistoric |author2=Quaternary Studies |name-list-style=amp |year=1998 |publisher=Indian Society for Prehistoric and Quaternary Studies. |page=6 |access-date=17 April 2011 |via=[[Google Books]]}}</ref><ref name="Mayor2014"/> While Zhang Qian did not succeed in this mission,{{sfn|Grousset|1970|p=[https://archive.org/details/empireofsteppesh00prof/page/34 34]}} his reports of the west provided even greater incentive to counter the Xiongnu hold on westward routes out of the Han Empire, and the Han prepared to mount a large scale attack using the [[Northern Silk Road]] to move men and material.

While the Han dynasty had been making preparations for a military confrontation since the reign of [[Emperor Wen of Han|Emperor Wen]], the break did not come until 133 BC, following [[Battle of Mayi|an abortive trap to ambush the ''Chanyu'' at Mayi]]. By that point the empire was consolidated politically, militarily and economically, and was led by an adventurous pro-war faction at court. In that year, [[Emperor Wu of Han|Emperor Wu]] reversed the decision he had made the year before to renew the peace treaty.

Full-scale war broke out in late 129 BC, when 40,000 Han [[cavalry]] made a surprise attack on the Xiongnu at the border markets. In 127 BC, the Han general [[Wei Qing]] retook the Ordos. In 121 BC, the Xiongnu suffered another setback when [[Huo Qubing]] led a force of light cavalry westward out of Longxi and within six days fought his way through five Xiongnu kingdoms. The Xiongnu Hunye king was forced to surrender with 40,000 men. In 119 BC both Huo and Wei, each leading 50,000 cavalrymen and 100,000 footsoldiers (in order to keep up with the mobility of the Xiongnu, many of the non-cavalry Han soldiers were mobile infantrymen who traveled on horseback but fought on foot), and advancing along different routes, forced the ''Chanyu'' and his Xiongnu court to flee north of the [[Gobi Desert]].{{Sfn | Loewe | 1974|p={{Page needed |date=December 2014}}}} 

[[File:Horse stomping a Xiongnu warrior. Tomb of Huo Qubing, 茂陵 (with face detail, two angles).jpg|thumb|upright=2|Horse trampling a Xiongnu warrior, with detail of the warrior's facial features. 2nd century BC statue from the tomb of Chinese general [[Huo Qubing]], who fought decisively against the Xiongnu (died 117 BC).<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Qingbo |first1=Duan |title=Sino-Western Cultural Exchange as Seen through the Archaeology of the First Emperor's Necropolis |journal=Journal of Chinese History |date=January 2023 |volume=7 |issue=1 |page=52 |doi=10.1017/jch.2022.25|s2cid=251690411 |doi-access=free }}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=Maenchen-Helfen |first1=Otto |last2=Helfen |first2=Otto |title=The World of the Huns: Studies in Their History and Culture |date=1 January 1973 |publisher=University of California Press |isbn=978-0-520-01596-8 |pages=369–370 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=CrUdgzSICxcC&pg=PA370 |language=en}}</ref><ref>For a frontal view: {{cite web |title=Horse Stepping on a Xiongnu Soldier |url=http://en.chinaculture.org/library/2008-01/22/content_77549_2.htm |website=en.chinaculture.org}}</ref>]]
Major logistical difficulties limited the duration and long-term continuation of these campaigns. According to the analysis of Yan You (嚴尤), the difficulties were twofold. Firstly there was the problem of supplying food across long distances. Secondly, the weather in the northern Xiongnu lands was difficult for Han soldiers, who could never carry enough fuel.{{efn|This view was put forward to [[Wang Mang]] in AD 14.<ref>''Han Shu'' (Beijing: Zhonghua shuju ed) 94B, p. 3824.</ref>}} According to official reports, the Xiongnu lost 80,000 to 90,000 men, and out of the 140,000 horses the Han forces had brought into the desert, fewer than 30,000 returned to the Han Empire.

In 104 and 102 BC, the Han fought and won the [[War of the Heavenly Horses]] against the Kingdom of [[Dayuan]]. As a result, the Han gained many [[Ferghana horse]]s which further aided them in their battle against the Xiongnu. As a result of these battles, the Han Empire controlled the strategic region from the [[Ordos Desert|Ordos]] and Gansu corridor to [[Lop Nor]]. They succeeded in separating the Xiongnu from the [[Qiang (historical people)|Qiang peoples]] to the south, and also gained direct access to the [[Western Regions]]. Because of strong Han control over the Xiongnu, the Xiongnu became unstable and were no longer a threat to the Han Empire.{{sfn|Bentley|1993|p=37}}

=== Xiongnu Civil War (60–53 BC) ===
[[File:Ancient bronze plaque showing horseman with prominent cheekbones and full beard, from Troitskovavsk,Transbaikalia.jpg|thumb|Depiction of a Xiongnu horseman on a bronze plaque.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Maenchen-Helfen |first1=Otto |title=The world of the Huns; studies in their history and culture |date=1973 |publisher=Berkeley, University of California Press |isbn=978-0-520-01596-8 |page=370 |url=https://archive.org/details/bub_gb_CrUdgzSICxcC/page/370/mode/2up |quote=Small bronze plaque showing a horseman with prominent cheekbones and full beard, from [[Troitskosavsk]],Transbaikalia.}}</ref>]]
When a chanyu died, power could pass to his younger brother if his son was not of age. This system normally kept an adult male on the throne, but could cause trouble in later generations when there were several lineages that might claim the throne. When [[Xulüquanqu]] Chanyu died in 60 BC, power was taken by [[Woyanqudi]], a grandson of Xulüquanqu's cousin. Being something of a usurper, he tried to put his own men in power, which only increased his number of his enemies. Xulüquanqu's son fled east and, in 58 BC, revolted. Few would support Woyanqudi and he was driven to suicide, leaving the rebel son, [[Huhanye]], as the chanyu. The Woyanqudi faction then set up his brother, Tuqi, as chanyu in 58 BC. In 57 BC three more men declared themselves Chanyu. Two dropped their claims in favor of the third who was defeated by Tuqi in that year and surrendered to Huhanye the following year. In 56 BC Tuqi was defeated by Huhanye and committed suicide, but two more claimants appeared: Runzhen and Huhanye's elder brother [[Zhizhi]] Chanyu. Runzhen was killed by Zhizhi in 54 BC, leaving only Zhizhi and Huhanye. Zhizhi grew in power, and, in 53 BC, Huhanye moved south and submitted to the Chinese. Huhanye used Chinese support to weaken Zhizhi, who gradually moved west. In 49 BC, a brother to Tuqi set himself up as Chanyu and was killed by Zhizhi. In 36 BC, Zhizhi was killed by a Chinese army while trying to establish a new kingdom in the far west near [[Lake Balkhash]].

=== Tributary relations with the Han ===
In 53 BC [[Huhanye]] decided to enter into tributary relations with [[Han China]].{{sfn|Grousset|1970|pp=[https://archive.org/details/empireofsteppesh00prof/page/37 37–38]}} The original terms insisted on by the Han court were that, first, the Chanyu or his representatives should come to the capital to pay homage; secondly, the Chanyu should send a hostage prince; and thirdly, the Chanyu should present tribute to the Han emperor. The political status of the Xiongnu in the Chinese world order was reduced from that of a "brotherly state" to that of an "outer vassal" (外臣).

[[File:Bronze seal of a Xiongnu chief (seal, reverse image, transcription).jpg|thumb|right|upright=1.5|Bronze seal of a Xiongnu chief, conferred by the Eastern Han government. Inscribed 漢匈奴/歸義親/漢長 ("The Chief of the Han Xiongnu, who have returned to righteousness and embraced the Han"). Seal, impression, and transcription in standard characters.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Psarras |first1=Sophia-Karin |title=Han Material Culture: An Archaeological Analysis and Vessel Typology |date=2 February 2015 |publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]] |isbn=978-1-316-27267-1 |page=19 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=YLD0BQAAQBAJ&pg=RA1-PR19 |via=[[Google Books]]}}</ref>]]
Huhanye sent his son, the "wise king of the right" Shuloujutang, to the Han court as hostage. In 51 BC he personally visited Chang'an to pay homage to the emperor on the [[Chinese New Year|Lunar New Year]]. In the same year, another envoy Qijushan was received at the [[Ganquan Palace]] in the north-west of modern [[Shanxi]].{{sfn|Fairbank|Têng|1941}} On the financial side, Huhanye was amply rewarded in large quantities of gold, cash, clothes, silk, horses and grain for his participation. Huhanye made two further homage trips, in 49 BC and 33 BC; with each one the imperial gifts were increased. On the last trip, Huhanye took the opportunity to ask to be allowed to become an imperial son-in-law. As a sign of the decline in the political status of the Xiongnu, [[Emperor Yuan of Han|Emperor Yuan]] refused, giving him instead five ladies-in-waiting. One of them was [[Wang Zhaojun]], famed in Chinese folklore as one of the [[Four Beauties]].

When Zhizhi learned of his brother's submission, he also sent a son to the Han court as hostage in 53&nbsp;BC. Then twice –in 51 BC and 50 BC– he sent envoys to the Han court with tribute. But having failed to pay homage personally, he was never admitted to the tributary system. In 36 BC, a junior officer named [[Chen Tang (general)|Chen Tang]], with the help of Gan Yanshou, protector-general of the Western Regions, assembled an expeditionary force that defeated him at the [[Battle of Zhizhi]] and sent his head as a trophy to Chang'an.

Tributary relations were discontinued during the reign of Huduershi (18–48 AD), corresponding to the political upheavals of the [[Xin dynasty]]. The Xiongnu took the opportunity to regain control of the western regions, as well as neighboring peoples such as the [[Wuhuan]]. In 24 AD, Hudershi even talked about reversing the tributary system.

=== Southern Xiongnu and Northern Xiongnu ===
[[File:Belt hook depicting animal fight, Xiongnu, 200-100 BC, bronze - Östasiatiska museet, Stockholm - DSC09561.JPG|thumb|Belt hook depicting an animal fight, Xiongnu, 200–100 BC, bronze. Östasiatiska museet, [[Stockholm]].{{sfn|Bunker|2002|loc=p. 104, item 72}}]]
The Xiongnu's new power was met with a policy of appeasement by [[Emperor Guangwu of Han|Emperor Guangwu]]. At the height of his power, Huduershi even compared himself to his illustrious ancestor, Modu. Due to growing regionalism among the Xiongnu, however, Huduershi was never able to establish unquestioned authority. In contravention of a principle of [[fraternal succession]] established by Huhanye, Huduershi designated his son Punu as [[heir-apparent]]. However, as the eldest son of the preceding chanyu, Bi (Pi)—the Rizhu King of the Right—had a more legitimate claim. Consequently, Bi refused to attend the annual meeting at the chanyu{{'}}s court. Nevertheless, in 46 AD, Punu ascended the throne.

In 48 AD, a confederation of eight Xiongnu tribes in Bi's power base in the south, with a military force totalling 40,000 to 50,000 men, seceded from Punu's kingdom and acclaimed Bi as chanyu. This kingdom became known as the '''Southern Xiongnu'''.

==== Northern Xiongnu ====
The rump kingdom under Punu, around the [[Orkhon Valley|Orkhon]] (modern north central Mongolia) became known as the '''Northern Xiongnu''', with Punu, becoming known as the [[Northern Chanyu]]. In 49 AD, the Northern Xiongnu was dealt a heavy defeat to the Southern Xiongnu. That same year, Zhai Tong, a Han governor of [[Liaodong Peninsula|Liaodong]] also enticed the [[Wuhuan]] and [[Xianbei]] into attacking the Northern Xiongnu.{{sfn|Grousset|1970|p=[https://archive.org/details/empireofsteppesh00prof/page/39 39]}} Soon, Punu began sending envoys on several separate occasions to negotiate peace with the Han dynasty, but made little to no progress.

In the 60s, the Northern Xiongnu resumed hostilities as they attempted to expand their influence into the [[Western Regions]] and launched raids on the Han borders. In 73, the Han responded by sending [[Dou Gu]] and Geng Chong to lead a [[Battle of Yiwulu|great expedition]] against the Northern Xiongnu in the [[Tarim Basin]]. The expedition, which saw the exploits of the famed general, [[Ban Chao]], was initially successful, but the Han had to temporarily withdraw in 75 due to matters back home. Ban Chao remained behind and maintained Chinese influence over the Western Regions before his death in 102.''<ref name=":0" />''{{sfn|Grousset|1970|pp=[https://archive.org/details/empireofsteppesh00prof/page/42 42–47]}}

For the next decade, the Northern Xiongnu had to endure famines largely due to locust plagues. In 87, they suffered a major defeat to the Xianbei, who killed their chanyu [[Youliu]] and took his skin as a trophy. With the Northern Xiongnu in disarray, the Han general, [[Dou Xian]] launched an expedition and crushed them at the [[Battle of the Altai Mountains]] in 89. After another Han attack in 91, the [[Northern Chanyu|Northern ''Chanyu'']] fled with his followers to the northwest, and was not seen again, while those that remained behind surrendered to the Han.''<ref name=":0" />''

In 94, dissatisfied with the newly appointed ''chanyu'', the surrendered Northern Xiongnu rebelled and acclaimed Fenghou as their chanyu, who led them to flee outside the border. However, the separatist regime continued to face famines and the growing threat of the Xianbei, prompting 10,000 of them to return to Han in 96. Fenghou later sent envoys to Han intending to submit as a vassal but was rejected. The Northern Xiongnu were scattered, with most of them being absorbed by the Xianbei. In 118, a defeated Fenghou brought around 100 followers to surrender to Han.''<ref name=":0" />''

Remnants of the Northern Xiongnu held out in the Tarim Basin as they allied themselves with the [[Jushi Kingdom|Nearer Jushi Kingdom]] and captured [[Hami|Yiwu]] in 119. By 126, they were subjugated by the Han general, [[Ban Yong]], while a branch led by a "Huyan King" continued to resist. The Huyan King was last mentioned in 151 when he launched an attack on Yiwu but was driven away by Han forces. According to the fifth-century ''[[Book of Wei]]'', the remnants of Northern ''Chanyu''<nowiki/>'s tribe settled as [[Yueban]], near [[Kucha]] and subjugated the [[Wusun]]; while the rest fled across the [[Altai Mountains]] towards [[Kangju]] in [[Transoxania]]. It states that this group later became the [[Hephthalites]].<ref>''Book of Wei'' [https://zh.wikisource.org/wiki/%E9%AD%8F%E6%9B%B8/%E5%8D%B7102 Vol. 102] (in Chinese)</ref><ref>{{cite book |last=Gumilev L.N. |title=История народа Хунну |trans-title=History of Hun People |place=Moscow |chapter-url=http://gumilevica.kulichki.net/HPH/hph15.htm |chapter=Ch. 15 |language=ru |url=http://gumilevica.kulichki.net/HPH/ |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090629204641/http://gumilevica.kulichki.net/HPH/ |archive-date=29 June 2009 |url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=Hyun Jim Kim |title=The Huns |date=2015 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-1-317-34090-4 |chapter=2 The So-called 'Two-Hundred year Interlude'}}</ref>

[[File:Asia 200ad.jpg|thumb|upright=1.35|Southern and Northern Xiongnu in 200 AD, before the collapse of the [[Han dynasty]].]]

==== Southern Xiongnu ====
[[File:Eastern Han Xiongnu Iron Cauldron (10337027003).jpg|thumb|upright|Xiongnu cauldron, [[Eastern Han]]]]
Coincidentally, the Southern Xiongnu were plagued by natural disasters and misfortunes—in addition to the threat posed by Punu. Consequently, in 50 AD, the Southern Xiongnu submitted to tributary relations with Han China. The system of tribute was considerably tightened by the Han, to keep the Southern Xiongnu under control. The ''Chanyu'' was ordered to establish his court in the Meiji district of [[Xihe Commandery]] and the Southern Xiongnu were resettled in eight frontier commanderies. At the same time, large numbers of Chinese were also resettled in these commanderies, in mixed Han-Xiongnu settlements. Economically, the Southern Xiongnu became reliant on trade with the Han and annual subsidies from the Chinese court.

The Southern Xiongnu served as Han auxiliaries to defend the northern borders from nomadic forces and even played a role in defeating the Northern Xiongnu. However, with the fall of their northern counterpart, the Southern Xiongnu continued to suffer the brunt of raids, this time by the [[Xianbei]] people of the steppe. In addition to the poor climate and living conditions of the frontiers, the Chinese court would also interfere in the Southern Xiongnu's politics and install ''chanyus'' loyal to the Han. As a result, the Southern Xiongnu often rebelled, at times joining forces with the [[Wuhuan]] and receiving support from the Xianbei.

During the late 2nd century AD, the ''Chanyu'' began sending his people to deal with the Han's internal matters; first against the [[Yellow Turban Rebellion]] and then another rebellion in [[Hebei]] in 188. Many of the Xiongnu feared that it would set a precedent for unending military service to the Han court. At the time, another Han vassal, the [[Chuge|Xiuchuge]] people had revolted in [[Bingzhou]] and killed the provincial inspector. Subsequently, a rebellious faction among the Southern Xiongnu allied with the Xiuchuge and killed the ''Chanyu'' as well. The Han court appointed his son, [[Yufuluo]], entitled Chizhi Shizhu ({{lang|zh|持至尸逐侯}}), to succeed him, but he was expelled from his territory by the rebels.

Yufuluo travelled to [[Luoyang]] to seek aid from the Han court, but the court was in disorder from the clash between Grand General [[He Jin]] and the [[Ten Attendants|eunuchs]], and the intervention of the warlord [[Dong Zhuo]]. The ''Chanyu'' subsequently settled down with his followers around [[Linfen|Pingyang]], east of the [[Fen River]] in [[Shanxi]]. In 195, he died and was succeeded as ''chanyu'' by his brother [[Huchuquan]]. Meanwhile, the rebels initially elected their own ''chanyu'', but after he died just a year into his reign, they left the position vacant and had an elderly nominal king put in his place. With the Southern Xiongnu in disarray, many of the tribes opted to distance themselves from the ongoing [[End of the Han dynasty|Han civil war]]. Yufuluo's group and the Xiuchuge were drawn into the conflict from time to time before they were all subdued by the warlord [[Cao Cao]].''<ref name=":0">{{Cite book |last=De Crespigny |first=Rafe |title=Northern frontier: the policies and strategy of the later Han Empire |date=1984 |publisher=Faculty of Asian Studies, Australian National University |isbn=978-0-86784-410-8 |series=Faculty of Asian Studies monographs |location=Canberra}}</ref>''

The Southern Xiongnu upheaval caused several frontier commanderies such as [[Shuofang Commandery|Shuofang]] and [[Yunzhong Commandery|Yunzhong]] to be lost to hostile tribes, prompting Cao Cao to abolish and abandon them. In 216, he detained Huchuquan in the city of [[Ye (Hebei)|Ye]] and reorganized the last vestiges of the Southern Xiongnu into the Five Divisions (Left, Right, South, North and Centre) around [[Taiyuan Commandery]] in modern-day [[Shanxi]], bringing them closer to the Chinese court's influence. The office of ''chanyu'' remained with Huchuquan at Ye until his death, after which it became vacant, while the Five Divisions were placed under the supervision of his uncle, [[Qubei]]. Each division was led by a local chief, who in turn was under the surveillance of a Chinese resident. This was aimed at preventing the tribes in Shanxi from engaging in rebellion, and also allowed Cao Cao to use them as auxiliaries in his cavalry.{{sfn|Grousset|1970|p=[https://archive.org/details/empireofsteppesh00prof/page/54 54]}}

=== Descendants and later states in northern China ===
[[Fang Xuanling]]'s [[Book of Jin|''Book of Jin'']] lists nineteen Xiongnu tribes that resettled within the Great Wall: [[Chuge]] (屠各), [[Xianzhi]] (鮮支), Koutou (寇頭), Wutan (烏譚), [[Tiele people|Chile]] (赤勒), Hanzhi (捍蛭), Heilang (黑狼), [[Chisha]] (赤沙), Yugang (鬱鞞), Weisuo (萎莎), Tutong (禿童), Bomie (勃蔑), Qiangqu (羌渠), [[Alat tribe|Helai]] (賀賴), Zhongqin (鐘跂), Dalou (大樓), Yongqu (雍屈), Zhenshu (真樹) and Lijie (力羯). Among the nineteen tribes, the Chuge, also known as the Xiuchuge, were the most honored and prestigious.<ref>{{cite book |last=Fang |first=Xuanling |publisher=[[Commercial Press]] |year=1958 |location=Beijing |language=zh |script-title=zh:晉書 |title=Jìnshū |trans-title=[[Book of Jin]] |author-link=Fang Xuanling}} Vol. 97</ref>

With the fall of the Southern Xiongnu state, the Xiongnu name gradually lost its unifying influence among its descendants, only ever invoked for political and symbolic purposes or as a generic label for tribes that did not belong to one of the major ethnic groups at the time. In [[Bingzhou]], the Chuge identity held more weight than that of the Xiongnu among the Five Divisions, while those excluded from the group mingled with tribes from various ethnicities and were referred to as "''[[Hu (people)|hu]]''" or other vague terms for the non-Chinese. Many of them began adopting Chinese family names such as Liu, which was prevalent among the Five Divisions.''{{sfn|Tang|2010|loc=ch.〈魏晋杂胡考 一 屠各〉}}'' 

Nonetheless, the Xiongnu are classified as one of the "[[Five Barbarians]]" of the [[Sixteen Kingdoms]] period. The [[Han-Zhao]] and [[Helian Xia]] dynasties were both founded by rulers on the basis of their Xiongnu ancestry. The [[Northern Liang]], established by the [[Lushuihu]], is sometimes categorized as a Xiongnu state in recent historiographies. [[Shi Le]], the founder of the [[Later Zhao]] dynasty, was a descendant of the Xiongnu Qiangqu tribe, although by his time, he and his people had become a separate ethnic group known as the [[Jie people|Jie]].

==== Han-Zhao dynasty (304–329) ====
{{Main|Han-Zhao|Chuge}}

===== Han (304–319) =====
[[File:Sixteen Kingdoms 317 AD (2).jpg|thumb|The [[Han-Zhao|Han-Zhao dynasty]] in 317 AD, shortly after the fall of the [[Western Jin dynasty]].]]
Eventually, the Five Divisions grew weary of subservience and attempted to assert their own power. The Commander of the Left Division, [[Liu Bao]] briefly unified them during the mid-3rd century before the [[Cao Wei]] and the [[Jin dynasty (266–420)|Western Jin]] courts intervened and forced them back into five. To further ensure their loyalty, nobles of the Five Divisions had to send their children to the Chinese capital as hostages, where they became accustomed to Chinese [[Confucianism|Confucian]] teachings and culture. They were even allowed to hold government offices under the Jin, but their status remained low compared to their Chinese peers. Amidst the [[War of the Eight Princes]] in 304, as Jin authority was collapsing in northern China, the Five Divisions took the opportunity to rebel.

[[Liu Yuan (Han-Zhao)|Liu Yuan]], the son of Liu Bao and a general serving under one of the Jin princes, was offered by the Five Divisions to lead their rebellion. After deceiving his prince, Liu Yuan returned to Bingzhou and was acclaimed as the Grand ''Chanyu''. Later that year, he declared himself the King of Han. Liu Yuan and his family members were Chuge people, but he also claimed to be a direct descendant of the Southern Xiongnu ''chanyus'' and depicted his state as a continuation of the [[Han dynasty]], citing that his alleged ancestors were married to Han princesses through ''[[heqin]].<ref name=":0" />{{sfn|Tang|2010|loc=ch.〈魏晋杂胡考 一 屠各〉}} ''He adopted the Chinese ruling system and allowed the Han Chinese and non-Chinese tribes to serve under him. In 308, he elevated his title to Emperor of Han, and in 309, he settled his capital at [[Linfen|Pingyang]].

The Western Jin, devastated by war and natural disasters, was unable to stop the growing threat of the Han. A few months after [[Liu Cong (Han-Zhao)|Liu Cong]] took the Han throne, the Jin imperial army was annihilated by his forces in 311. Soon, the Han descended upon the Jin capital [[Luoyang]], sacking the city and capturing [[Emperor Huai of Jin]] in an event known as the [[Disaster of Yongjia]]. In 316, the Jin restoration in [[Chang'an]], headed by [[Emperor Min of Jin|Emperor Min]], was also crushed by the Han. After the fall of Chang'an, the remnants of the Jin south of the [[Yangtze|Yangtze river]] at [[Jiankang]] re-established themselves as the [[Eastern Jin dynasty]] in 318.{{sfn|Grousset|1970|pp=[https://archive.org/details/empireofsteppesh00prof/page/56 56–57]}}

Despite military success, the Han's imperial authority was limited. They suffered from internal strife under Liu Cong, who was described as a cruel and dissolute ruler. Faced with stern opposition from his own ministers, he greatly empowered his [[Consort kin|consort kins]] and [[Eunuchs in China|eunuchs]] to counter them, throwing the Han court into a power struggle which ended in a brutal purge. Liu Cong also failed to constrain [[Shi Le]], a general of [[Jie people|Jie]] ethnicity who effectively held the eastern parts of the empire. After Liu Cong's death in 318, the consort kin, [[Jin Zhun]] massacred the imperial family in Pingyang before he was defeated by a combined force led by Liu Cong's cousin, [[Liu Yao]], and Shi Le.

===== Former Zhao (319–329) =====
During Jin Zhun's rebellion, the Han loyalists that escaped the massacre acclaimed [[Liu Yao]] as the new emperor. In 319, he moved the capital from Pingyang to his base in Chang'an and renamed the dynasty as Zhao. Unlike his predecessors, Liu Yao appealed more to his Xiongnu ancestry by honouring [[Modu Chanyu]] and distancing himself from the state's initial positioning of Han restoration. However, this was not a break from Liu Yuan, as he continued to honor Liu Yuan and [[Liu Cong (Han-Zhao)|Liu Cong]] posthumously; it is hence known to historians collectively as [[Han-Zhao]]. That same year, Shi Le proclaimed independence and formed his own state of Zhao, challenging Liu Yao for hegemony over northern China. For this reason, Han-Zhao is also known to historians as the Former Zhao to distinguish it from Shi Le's [[Later Zhao]].

Liu Yao retained control over the [[Guanzhong]] region and expanded his domain westward by campaigning against remnants of the Jin, [[Former Liang]] and [[Chouchi]]. Eventually, Liu Yao led his army to fight Later Zhao for control over [[Luoyang]] but was captured by Shi Le's forces in battle and executed in 329. Chang'an soon fell to Later Zhao and the last of Former Zhao's forces were destroyed. Thus ended the Han-Zhao dynasty; northern China would be dominated by the Later Zhao for the next 20 years.{{sfn|Grousset|1970|pp=[https://archive.org/details/empireofsteppesh00prof/page/57 57–58]}} The Chuge people would remain a prominent ethnic group in northern China for the next two centuries.

==== Tiefu tribe and Helian Xia dynasty (309–431) ====
{{Main|Xia (Sixteen Kingdoms)}}
[[File:统万城.JPG|thumb|Remnants of [[Tongwancheng]], capital of the [[Hu Xia dynasty|Helian Xia dynasty]] in present-day [[Jingbian County]], [[Shaanxi]].]]
The chieftains of the [[Tiefu]] tribe were descendants of [[Qubei]] and were related to another tribe, the [[Dugu (surname)|Dugu]]. Based on their name, which meant a person whose father was a Xiongnu and mother was a [[Xianbei]], the Tiefu had mingled with the Xianbei, and records refer to them as "[[Wuhuan]]", which by the 4th-century had become a generic term for miscellaneous ''[[Hu (people)|hu]]'' tribes with [[Donghu people|Donghu]] elements.{{sfn|Tang|2010|loc=ch.〈魏晋杂胡考 四 乌丸〉}} In 309, their chieftain, [[Liu Hu (Tiefu)|Liu Hu]] rebelled against the Western Jin in Shanxi but was driven out to [[Shuofang Commandery]] in the [[Ordos Loop]]. The Tiefu resided there for most of their existence, often as a vassal to their stronger neighbours before their power was destroyed by the [[Northern Wei]] dynasty in 392.

[[Liu Bobo]], a surviving member of the Tiefu, went into exile and eventually offered his services to the [[Qiang (historical people)|Qiang]]-led [[Later Qin]]. He was assigned to guard Shuofang, but in 407, angered by Qin holding peace talks with the Northern Wei, he rebelled and founded a state known as the [[Hu Xia dynasty|Helian Xia dynasty]]. Bobo strongly affirmed his Xiongnu lineage; his state name of "Xia" was based on the claim that the Xiongnu were descendants of the [[Xia dynasty]], and he later changed his family name from "Liu" (劉) to the more Xiongnu-like "Helian" (赫連), believing it inappropriate to follow his matrilineal line from the Han. Helian Bobo placed the Later Qin in a perpetual state of warfare and greatly contributed to its decline. In 418, he conquered the [[Guanzhong]] region from the [[Jin dynasty (266–420)|Eastern Jin dynasty]] after the [[Liu Yu's Northern Expeditions|Jin destroyed Qin]] the previous year.

After Helian Bobo's death in 425, the Xia quickly declined due to pressure from the Northern Wei. In 428, the emperor, [[Helian Chang]] and capital were both captured by Wei forces. His brother, [[Helian Ding]] succeeded him and conquered the [[Western Qin]] in 431, but that same year, he was ambushed and imprisoned by the [[Tuyuhun]] while attempting a campaign against [[Northern Liang]]. The Xia was at its end, and the following year, Helian Ding was sent to Wei where he was executed.

[[Tongwancheng]] (meaning "Unite All Nations"), was one of the capitals of the Xia that was built during the reign of Helian Bobo. The ruined city was discovered in 1996<ref>{{Citation|title = Sand-covered Hun City Unearthed|place = [[China|CN]]|publisher = China|url = http://www.china.org.cn/english/travel/45103.htm}}</ref> and the State Council designated it as a cultural relic under top state protection. The repair of the Yong'an Platform, where Helian Bobo reviewed parading troops, was completed and restoration on the {{Convert|31|m|ft|abbr=on}} tall turret follows.<ref>{{Citation |title=National Geographic |edition=online |url=http://www.geographic.hu/index.php?act=napi&id=5207}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |language=hu |last=Obrusánszky |first=Borbála |date=10 October 2006 |trans-title=Huns in China |title=Hunok Kínában |journal=Amsterdam Studies |issn=1873-3042 |issue=3 |url=http://www.federatio.org/as/AS_0003.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130718081823/http://www.federatio.org/as/AS_0003.pdf |archive-date=18 July 2013 |url-status=live |access-date=18 August 2008}}</ref>

==== Juqu clan and Northern Liang dynasty (401–460) ====
{{Main|Northern Liang|Lushuihu}}
The Juqu clan were a [[Lushuihu]] family that founded the [[Northern Liang|Northern Liang dynasty]] in modern-day [[Gansu]] in 397. Recent historiographies often classify the Northern Liang as a "Xiongnu" state, but there is still ongoing debate on the exact origin of the Lushuihu. A leading theory is that the Lushuihu were descendants of the [[Yuezhi|Lesser Yuezhi]] that had intermingled with the [[Qiang (historical people)|Qiang]] people, but based on the fact that the Juqu's ancestors once served the Xiongnu empire, the Lushuihu could still be considered a branch of the Xiongnu. Regardless, contemporaneous records treat the Lushuihu as a distinct ethnic group.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Zhou |first=Yiliang |title=《魏晋南北朝史论集》 |date=June 1997 |publisher=[[Beijing University Press]] |isbn=978-7-301-03191-9 |location=Beijing |language=zh |chapter=〈北朝的民族問題與民族政策〉}}</ref>{{sfn|Tang|2010|loc=ch.〈魏晋杂胡考 二 卢水胡〉}} The Northern Liang was known for its propagation of [[Buddhism]] in Gansu through their construction of Buddhist sites such as the [[Tiantishan Caves|Tiantishan]] and [[Mogao Caves|Mogao]] caves, and for being the last of the so-called Sixteen Kingdoms after it was conquered by the [[Northern Wei|Northern Wei dynasty]] in 439.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Bell |first1=Alexander Peter |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=77hHrXX4COgC&pg=PA107 |title=Didactic Narration: Jataka Iconography in Dunhuang with a Catalogue of Jataka Representations in China |date=2000 |publisher=LIT Verlag Münster |isbn=978-3-8258-5134-7 |page=107 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=Whitfield |first1=Roderick |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=EWmmCgAAQBAJ&pg=PA55 |title=Cave Temples of Mogao at Dunhuang: Art History on the Silk Road: Second Edition |last2=Whitfield |first2=Susan |last3=Agnew |first3=Neville |date=15 September 2015 |publisher=Getty Publications |isbn=978-1-60606-445-0 |page=55 |language=en}}</ref> There was also the Northern Liang of [[Gaochang]], which existed between 442 and 460.