Editing Xianbei (section)

==History==
{{multiple image
| align = right | direction = vertical | header = | header_align = left/right/center | footer = Mural paintings of court life in Xu Xianxiu's Tomb, [[Northern Qi dynasty]], 571 AD, located in [[Taiyuan]], [[Shanxi]] province | footer_align = left
| image1 = Paintings on north wall of Xu Xianxiu Tomb.jpg | width1 = 250 | caption1  =
| image2 = Paintings on east wall of Xu Xianxiu Tomb.jpg | width2 = 250| caption2  =
| image3 = Paintings on west wall of Xu Xianxiu Tomb.jpg | width3 = 250 | caption3  = 
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===Origin===
[[Warring States period]]'s [[Chinese literature]] contains early mentions of Xianbei, as in the poem "[[The Great Summons]]" ({{CJKV|t=大招|s=大招|p=Dà zhāo}}) in the anthology [[Chu Ci|Verses of Chu]]<ref>''Chu Ci'', [https://ctext.org/chu-ci/da-zhao#n51934 "Da Zhao"]. quote: "小腰秀頸，若'''鮮卑'''只。". translation (by Gopal Sukhu, 2017): "And she is as small-waisted and long-necked [a]s a '''Xianbei''' woman."</ref> and possibly the chapter "Discourses of Jin 8" in [[Guoyu (book)|Discourses of the States]].<ref>''Guoyu'', [https://ctext.org/guo-yu/jin-yu-ba#n24816 "Jinyu 8"] quote: "昔成王盟諸侯于岐陽，楚為荊蠻，置茅蕝，設望表，與'''鮮卑'''守燎，故不與盟。" translation: "Of yore, [[King Cheng of Zhou|King Cheng]]  convened an alliance-covenant ceremony with the [[Chinese nobility#Honors and awards, and clan law, of the Zhou dynasty|various vassals]] at [[Qishan County|(Mt.) Qi]]'s south-side, the [[Chu (state)|Chu]], being [[Nanman|barbarians]] from [[Jingzhou (ancient China)|Jing]], held up bundles of [[cogon grass]] (through which to pour sacrificial wine), set up spirit tablets (for making offerings to the spirits of mountains and streams), and tended to the torches along with the '''Xianbei''', therefore (the Chu) were not present at the alliance-covenant ceremony."</ref><ref>Zhang, Zhengming. (2019) A History Of Chu (Volume 1) Honolulu: Enrich Professional Publishing. p. 42-46</ref>{{efn|Zhang Zhengming (2017) accepts the reading 鮮卑<ref>Zhang, Zhengming. (2019) A History Of Chu (Volume 1) Honolulu: Enrich Professional Publishing. [https://books.google.com/books?id=kthDEAAAQBAJ&q=xianbei+%E9%AE%AE%E5%8D%91 p. 45]. quote: "and tending the shrine flames together with the '''Xianbei 鮮卑''' clan leader."</ref> (also seen in the early 19th century version published by Jinzhang bookstore ({{lang|zh|錦章図書局}}) in Shanghai<ref name = "gy-wul-2-36">''Guoyu'', explained by Wei Zhao, "Jinyu 8". Jinzhang Bookstore's version, vol. 2 [https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:WUL-bunko01_01820_%E5%9C%8B%E8%AA%9E_2.pdf&page=36 p. 36] Waseda University Library's copy</ref>) as the ethnonym of the people who accompanied the Chu. However, 鮮卑 Xianbei is likely a scribal error for '''鮮牟 Xianmou''' (as in other versions like Sibu Congkan ([[:w:zh:四部叢刊|四部叢刊]]),<ref name = "gy-sbck-140">''Guoyu'', explained by Wei Zhao, "Jinyu 8". 1st edition Sibu Congkan version, vol. 3 [https://ctext.org/library.pl?if=en&file=77610&page=140#%E9%AE%AE%E7%89%9F p. 140] of 154</ref> or [[Siku Quanshu]] ([[:w:zh:四庫全書|四庫全書]])<ref name = "gy-skqs-42">''Guoyu'', explained by Wei Zhao, "Jinyu 8". Siku Quanshu version, vol. 3–7, [https://ctext.org/library.pl?if=en&file=68900&page=42#%E9%AE%AE%E7%89%9F p. 42] of 148</ref>). [[Eastern Wu]] scholar [[Wei Zhao (Eastern Wu)|Wei Zhao]] states that the 鮮牟 Xianmou were an [[Dongyi|Eastern Yi]] nation,<ref name = "gy-sbck-140-wz">''Guoyu'', "Jinyu 8", explained by Wei Zhao, 1st edition Sibu Congkan version, vol. 3 [https://ctext.org/library.pl?if=en&file=77610&page=140#%E9%AE%AE%E7%89%9F%E6%9D%B1%E5%A4%B7%E5%9C%8B p. 140] of 154. quote: "鮮牟東夷國"</ref><ref name = "gy-skqs-43">''Guoyu'', "Jinyu 8", explained by Wei Zhao. Siku Quanshu version, vol. 3–7, [https://ctext.org/library.pl?if=en&file=68900&page=43#%E9%AE%AE%E7%89%9F p. 43] of 148. quote: "鮮牟東夷國"</ref> while the 鮮卑 Xianbei were of [[Shanrong|Mountain Rong]] origin.<ref>''Guoyu'', explained by Wei Zhao, "Qiyu", 1st edition Sibu Congkan version, vol. 2, [https://ctext.org/library.pl?if=en&file=77609&page=90#%E5%B1%B1%E6%88%8E%E4%BB%8A%E4%B9%8B%E9%AE%AE%E5%8D%91 p. 90] of 160, quote: "山戎今之鮮卑"</ref><ref>''Guoyu'', explained by Wei Zhao, "Qiyu". Siku Quanshu version, vol. 6–8, [https://ctext.org/library.pl?if=en&file=68894&page=28 p. 28] of 111, quote: "山戎今之鮮卑"</ref> The apparent scribal error results in contradicting statements, apparently by Wei Zhao, that the Xianbei were an Eastern Yi nation<ref name = "gy-wul-2-36-dy">''Guoyu'', explained by Wei Zhao, "Jinyu 8". Jinzhang Bookstore's version, vol. 2 [https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:WUL-bunko01_01820_%E5%9C%8B%E8%AA%9E_2.pdf&page=36 p. 36]. quote: "鮮卑東夷國". Waseda University Library's copy</ref> and a people of Mountain Rong origin.<ref name="gy-wul-1-42-sr">''Guoyu'', explained by Wei Zhao, "Qiyu". Jinzhang Bookstore's version, [https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:WUL-bunko01_01820_%E5%9C%8B%E8%AA%9E_1.pdf&page=42 p. 42]. quote: "山戎今之鮮卑". Waseda University Library's copy</ref> [[Huang Pilie]] (1763–1825) states that the reading 鮮卑 Xianbei was inauthentic and identifies the 鮮牟 Xianmou with '''根牟 [[Genmou]]''', an Eastern Yi nation conquered by the [[Lu (state)|Lu state]] in the 9th year of Duke Xuan of Lu's reign (600 BCE).<ref>''[[Spring and Autumn Annals|Chunqiu]] [[Zuo Zhuan]]'' "Duke Xuan's 9th year" [https://zh.wikisource.org/wiki/%E6%98%A5%E7%A7%8B%E5%B7%A6%E6%B0%8F%E5%82%B3/%E5%AE%A3%E5%85%AC#%E7%B6%93_9 jing]; quote:（ 秋，取根牟。）; rough translation: "In autumn, [Lu] conquered Genmou." [https://zh.wikisource.org/wiki/%E6%98%A5%E7%A7%8B%E5%B7%A6%E6%B0%8F%E5%82%B3/%E5%AE%A3%E5%85%AC#%E5%82%B3_9 zhuan]; quote:（秋，取根牟，言易也。）; rough translation: "In autumn, [Lu] conquered Genmou. It's said that was easy."</ref><ref>[[Du Yu]], 《春秋經傳集解》 ''Chunqiu Zuozhuan – Collected Explanations'', "vol. 2"  [https://ctext.org/library.pl?if=gb&file=77349&page=151#%E6%A0%B9%E7%89%9F%E6%9D%B1%E5%A4%B7%E5%9C%8B%E4%B9%9F p. 151 of 190]. quote:（ 根牟東夷國也 ）</ref><ref>Xu Yuangao & Wang Shumin (2002). 國語集解 (''Discourses of the States – Collected Explanations'') Publisher: [[Zhonghua Book Company]]. p. 430. quote:（ 黃丕烈曰：「鮮牟，一本作『鮮卑』，非。『鮮牟』即宣九年之『根牟』也，…… 。」）; rough translation: "Huang Pilie said: 'Xianmou (鮮牟), in one copy it is written as Xianbei (鮮卑), which is inauthentic. The Xianmou (鮮牟) are the Genmou  (根牟) in (Duke) Xuan's 9th year. [...].'"</ref>}}

When the Donghu "Eastern Barbarians" were defeated by [[Modu Chanyu]] around 208 BC, the Donghu splintered into the Xianbei and Wuhuan.<ref>Xu Elina-Qian, [https://helda.helsinki.fi/handle/10138/19205 ''Historical Development of the Pre-Dynastic Khitan''], University of Helsinki, 2005. p. 164</ref> According to the ''[[Book of the Later Han]]'', "the language and culture of the Xianbei are the same as the [[Wuhuan]]".<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Chen|first1=Sanping|date=1996|title=A-Gan Revisited — The Tuoba's Cultural and Political Heritage|journal=Journal of Asian History|volume=30|issue=1|pages=46–78|jstor=41931010}}</ref>

The first significant contact the Xianbei had with the Han dynasty was in 41 and 45, when they joined the Wuhuan and Xiongnu in raiding Han territory.<ref name="chinaknowledge.de">{{cite web|url=http://www.chinaknowledge.de/History/Altera/xianbei.html|title = Xianbei 鮮卑 |website=Chinaknowledge.de}}</ref>

In 49, the governor Ji Tong convinced the Xianbei chieftain Pianhe to turn on the Xiongnu with rewards for each Xiongnu head they collected.<ref name="chinaknowledge.de"/> In 54, Yuchouben and Mantou of the Xianbei paid tribute to [[Emperor Guangwu of Han]].{{sfn|de Crespigny|2007|p=1016}}

In 58, the Xianbei chieftain Pianhe attacked and killed Xinzhiben, a Wuhuan leader causing trouble in [[Yuyang Commandery]].{{sfn|de Crespigny|2007|p=899}}

In 85, the Xianbei secured an alliance with the [[Dingling]] and [[Southern Xiongnu]].<ref name="chinaknowledge.de"/>

In 87, the Xianbei attacked the Xiongnu [[chanyu]] [[Youliu]] and killed him. They flayed him and his followers and took the skins back as trophies.{{sfn|de Crespigny|2007|p=991}}

In 93, as the Northern Xiongnu were forced to the northwest by the [[Han dynasty]], the Xianbei began occupying the [[Mongolian Plateau]], absorbing 100,000 Xiongnu tribes and increasing their strength.

In 109, the Wuhuan and Xianbei attacked [[Wuyuan Commandery]] and defeated local Han forces.{{sfn|de Crespigny|2007|p=782}} The [[Southern Xiongnu]] chanyu [[Wanshishizhudi]] rebelled against the Han and attacked the Emissary Geng Chong but failed to oust him. Han forces under [[Geng Kui]] retaliated and defeated a force of 3,000 Xiongnu but could not take the Southern Xiongnu capital due to disease among the horses of their Xianbei allies.{{sfn|de Crespigny|2007|p=782}}

The Xianbei under Qizhijian raided Han territory four times from 121 to 138.{{sfn|de Crespigny|2017}} In 145, the Xianbei raided [[Dai Commandery]].{{sfn|Cosmo|2009|p=106}}

===Xianbei Confederation===
{{See also|Tanshihuai}}
Around the mid-2nd century, a chieftain, [[Tanshihuai]], unified the Xianbei tribes and established an imperial court at Mount Danhan (彈汗山; in present-day [[Shangyi County]], [[Hebei]]). Under Tanshihuai, the Xianbei attacked the [[Wusun]] in the west and repelled the [[Dingling]] from the north and [[Buyeo]] from the east. He divided the Xianbei empire into three sections, each governed by an appointed chieftain.<ref name="Rene">{{Cite book |last=Grousset |first=Rene |url=https://archive.org/details/empireofsteppesh00prof/page/53 |title=The Empire of the Steppes |publisher=Rutgers University Press |year=1970 |isbn=978-0-8135-1304-1 |pages=[https://archive.org/details/empireofsteppesh00prof/page/53 53–54]}}</ref><ref>"Nomads in Central Asia." N. Ishjamts. In: ''History of civilizations of Central Asia, Volume II. The development of sedentary and nomadic civilizations: 700 B.C. to A.D. 250''. Harmatta, János, ed., 1994. Paris: UNESCO Publishing, pp. 155–156.</ref><ref>SGZ 30. 837–838, note. 1.</ref>{{blockquote|Tanshihuai of the Xianbei divided his territory into three sections: the eastern, the middle and the western. From the [[You Beiping]] to the [[Liao River]], connecting the Fuyu and Mo to the east, it was the eastern section. There were more than twenty counties. The darens (chiefs) (of this section) were called Mijia 彌加, Queji 闕機, Suli 素利 and Huaitou 槐頭. From the You Beiping to Shanggu to the west, it was the middle section. There were more than ten counties. The darens of this section were called Kezui 柯最, Queju 闕居, Murong 慕容, et al. From Shanggu to Dunhuang, connecting the Wusun to the west, it was the western section. There were more than twenty counties. The darens (of this section) were called Zhijian Luoluo 置鞬落羅, Rilü Tuiyan 曰律推演, Yanliyou 宴荔游, et al. These chiefs were all subordinate to Tanshihuai.|''[[Records of the Three Kingdoms]]''<ref>SGZ 30. 837–838, note. 1.</ref>}}Throughout his reign, Tanshihuai aggressively raided the Han dynasty's northern borders, with his first recorded raid being in 156. In 166, he even allied with the [[Southern Xiongnu]] and [[Wuhuan]] to attack [[Shaanxi]] and [[Gansu]]. These raids devastated the border commanderies and claimed many lives. Though the Han was able to repel them at times, they were concerned that they would not be able to subdue Tanshihuai. The Han attempted to appease him by offering him the title of King, but Tanshihuai rejected them and continued to harass their borders.

In 177, [[Xia Yu (Han dynasty)|Xia Yu]], [[Tian Yan (Han dynasty)|Tian Yan]] and the Southern Xiongnu [[Chanyu]], [[Tute Ruoshi Zhujiu]] led a force of 30,000 against the Xianbei. They were defeated and returned with only one-tenth of their original forces.{{sfn|Cosmo|2009|p=107}} A memorial made that year records that the Xianbei had taken all the lands previously held by the Xiongnu and their warriors numbered 100,000. Han deserters who sought refuge in their lands served as their advisers and refined metals as well as wrought iron came into their possession. Their weapons were sharper and their horses faster than those of the Xiongnu. Another memorial submitted in 185 states that the Xianbei were making raids on Han settlements nearly every year.{{sfn|Twitchett|2008|p=445}}

Despite the constant raids, the loose Xianbei confederacy lacked the organization of the Xiongnu empire, and they were struggling to sustain their growing population.{{sfn|de Crespigny|2017|p=401}} Tanshihuai died in 181 and was succeeded by his son, Helian, but he lacked his father's abilities and was killed in a raid on [[Beidi Commandery|Beidi]] during the last years of [[Emperor Ling of Han]].{{sfn|de Crespigny|2007|p=320}} Helian's son, Qianman was too young at the time of his father's death, so the chieftains elected his nephew, Kuitou, to succeed him. Once Qianman came of age, however, he challenged his cousin to succession, destroying the last vestiges of unity among the Xianbei.
[[File:Iron_broadsword,_Xianbei_nation_during_the_Han_dynasty_(206_BCE_to_220_CE),_from_Xianbei_tomb_in_Yushu,_Jilin_Province.jpg|center|thumb|Iron broadsword, Xianbei nation during the [[Han dynasty]] (206 BCE to 220 CE), from a Xianbei tomb in [[Yushu, Jilin|Yushu]], [[Jilin Province]]]]

===Three Kingdoms===
{{See also|Kebineng}}[[File:Belt_fasteners,_Xianbei_nation_during_the_Han_dynasty_(206_BCE_to_220_CE),_from_Xianbei_tomb_in_Yushu,_Jilin_Province.jpg|thumb|Han-era Xianbei belt fasteners from a Xianbei tomb in Yushu, Jilin]]
By the [[Jian'an (Eastern Han)|Jian'an era]] (196–220), the Xianbei had split into many different groups, most notably with Kuitou ruling in [[Inner Mongolia]], [[Kebineng]] in northern [[Shanxi]], and Suli, Mijia and Queji in northern [[Liaodong]]. Following his death, Kuitou's brothers [[Budugen]] and [[Fuluohan]] divided his territory among themselves. After [[Cao Cao]] defeated the [[Wuhuan]] at the [[Battle of White Wolf Mountain]] in 207, Budugen, Fuluohan, Kebineng and others paid tribute to him. In 218, Fuluohan met with the Wuhuan chieftain Nengchendi to form an alliance, but Nengchendi double crossed him and called in Kebineng, who killed Fuluohan.{{sfn|de Crespigny|2007|p=237}} Budugen went to the court of [[Cao Wei]] in 224 to ask for assistance against Kebineng, but he eventually betrayed them and allied with Kebineng in 233. Kebineng killed Budugen soon afterwards.{{sfn|de Crespigny|2007|p=25}}

Kebineng was from a minor Xianbei tribe. He rose to power west of [[Dai Commandery]] by taking in a number of Chinese refugees, who helped him drill his soldiers and make weapons. After the defeat of the Wuhuan in 207, he also sent tribute to Cao Cao, and even provided assistance against the rebel Tian Yin. In 218 he allied himself to the Wuhuan rebel Nengchendi but they were heavily defeated and forced back across the frontier by [[Cao Zhang]]. In 220, he acknowledged [[Cao Pi]] as emperor of Cao Wei. Eventually, he turned on Wei for frustrating his advances on Suli. Kebineng conducted raids on Cao Wei before he was killed in 235, after which his confederacy disintegrated.{{sfn|de Crespigny|2007|p=289}}
[[File:Xianbei post 3K (2024).png|left|thumb|Distribution of major Xianbei clans in the early 4th century.{{icn|date=July 2024}}]]
Many of the Xianbei tribes migrated south and settled on the borders of the Wei-Jin dynasties, where they often offered their submission. In 258, the [[Tuoba]] tribe settled in the abandoned city of [[Shengle]], north of the [[Yin Mountains]].{{sfn|de Crespigny|2017|p=502}} To the east of them, the [[Yuwen]] tribe settled between the [[Luan River]] and [[Chaoyang, Liaoning|Liucheng]], while the [[Murong]] tribe were allowed to move deeper into [[Liaodong Peninsula|Liaodong]]. The [[Duan tribe|Duan]] tribe was founded in [[Liaoxi Commandery|Liaoxi]] within the [[Great Wall of China|Great Wall]] by a Xianbei ex-slave along with a group of exiles. In the west, an offshoot of the Murong moved into northern [[Qinghai]] and mixed with the native [[Qiang people]], becoming [[Tuyuhun]].<ref name="chinaknowledge.de" /> The Qifu tribe settled near the [[Longxi Commandery|Longxi basin]], while a branch of the Tuoba, the Tufa tribe, roamed the [[Hexi Corridor|Hexi corridor]]. In 270, the Tufa chieftain, [[Tufa Shujineng]], led the various ethnic tribes in the northwest in a [[Tufa Shujineng's Rebellion|rebellion]] against the [[Jin dynasty (266–420)|Jin dynasty]] in [[Qín Prefecture|Qin]] and [[Liang Province|Liang]] provinces but was defeated in 279 by [[Ma Long (Jin dynasty)|Ma Long]].<ref name="Rene" />

===Sixteen Kingdoms and Northern Wei===
[[File:Northern Dynasties Pottery Horse & Rider.jpg|thumb|Northern dynasties horseman]]
[[File:Northern Wei Cavalry (4).jpg|thumb|Northern Wei cavalry]]
[[File:Dinastia wei del nord, due cavalieri, cina del nord, 500-550 ca..JPG|thumb|Northern Wei cavalry]]
{{See also|Upheaval of the Five Barbarians|Sixteen Kingdoms|Northern Wei}}

During the [[War of the Eight Princes]], the Xianbei of the northeast, primarily the [[Duan tribe|Duan]], were brought in to fight in the civil wars of the Jin princes and played a deciding factor in the wars. When the [[Xiongnu]] in [[Shanxi]] rebelled and founded the [[Han-Zhao|Han-Zhao dynasty]], the Tuoba offered their assistance to Jin to fight the rebels. The Jin were heavily reliant on the Xianbei's military force as they gradually lost the north during the [[upheaval of the Five Barbarians]]. For their services, the Duan and Tuoba were granted the duchies of [[Liaoxi Commandery|Liaoxi]] and [[Dai Commandery|Dai]], respectively. However, for varying reasons, most of the Xianbei eventually withdrew from the conflict, allowing the remnants of Jin to be quickly overwhelmed. Mass number of Chinese officers, soldiers and civilians fled south to join the Eastern Jin or north to join the Xianbei duchies.

The Xianbei founded several of the [[Sixteen Kingdoms]] in northern China. The [[Murong]] of [[Liaodong Peninsula|Liaodong]] were the most notable clan of this period. Having adopted the Jin governing system and customs, they rose to prominence during the fall of Western Jin by providing refuge and cooperating closely with the Chinese exiles, eventually establishing Xianbei rule over the [[Zhongyuan|Central Plains]] after they defeated the [[Ran Wei]] in 352. They founded the [[Former Yan]] (337–370), [[Later Yan]] (384–407) and [[Southern Yan]] (398–410), as well as the [[Western Yan]] (384–394; not listed among the Sixteen Kingdoms). The Murong dominated the northeast and at one point vied to unify China, but fell short due to family infighting, corruption and weak rulers. Meanwhile, in [[Gansu]], the Qifu established the [[Western Qin]] (385–431) while the Tufa established the [[Southern Liang (Sixteen Kingdoms)|Southern Liang]] (397–414).

The Tuoba retained their fiefdom of [[Dai (Sixteen Kingdoms)|Dai]] (310–376), which was elevated to a kingdom in 315, before they were eventually conquered by the [[Di (Five Barbarians)|Di]]-led [[Former Qin|Former Qin dynasty]]. With the fall of Dai, northern China was briefly unified under the Qin, but as they rapidly collapsed following a disastrous defeat at the [[Battle of Fei River]] in 383, the Tuoba restored their state as the [[Northern Wei|Northern Wei dynasty]] (386–535), becoming the first of the [[Northern dynasties]] (386–581). The Northern Wei grew in power after they defeated and supplanted the Later Yan on the [[Zhongyuan|Central Plains]]. In 439, they conquered the last of the [[Sixteen Kingdoms]], thereby unifying the north and completing the transition into the [[Northern and Southern dynasties|Northern and Southern dynasties period]].<ref>Ma, Changshou [馬長壽] (1962). Wuhuan yu Xianbei [Wuhuan and Xianbei] 烏桓與鮮卑. Shanghai [上海], Shanghai ren min chu ban she [Shanghai People's Press] 上海人民出版社.</ref><ref>Liu, Xueyao [劉學銚] (1994). Xianbei shi lun [the Xianbei History] 鮮卑史論. Taipei [台北], Nan tian shu ju [Nantian Press] 南天書局.</ref><ref>Wang, Zhongluo [王仲荦] (2007). Wei jin nan bei chao shi [History of Wei, Jin, Southern and Northern Dynasties] 魏晋南北朝史. Beijing [北京], Zhonghua shu ju [China Press] 中华书局.</ref>

[[Image:BeltBuckleXianbei3-4thcentury.jpg|left|thumb|Xianbei belt buckles, 3–4th century AD]]

===Sinicization, assimilation and descendants===
{{See also|Northern and Southern dynasties|Emperor Xiaowen of Northern Wei}}
[[File:Seattle terracota china 04.JPG|thumb|Northern Wei cavalry figurines]]
The Northern Wei unification was long-lasting and brought a period of relative peace to the north in the wake of the chaotic Sixteen Kingdoms period. The Xianbei had naturally been in the process of [[sinicization]] since they first entered the Chinese interior, but this process became systemic during the late Northern Wei period. [[Emperor Xiaowen of Northern Wei]] established a policy of systematic sinicization that was continued by his successors and largely abandoned Xianbei traditions. The royal family took sinicization a step further by decreeing the [[change of Xianbei names to Han names]], even changing their own family name from Tuoba to Yuan. Xiaowen also moved the capital to [[Luoyang]] in the Chinese heartlands away from [[Pingcheng]] near the northern frontiers. While the population in Luoyang were open to accepting the policies, the population near the old capital were more conservative and held on to their Xianbei culture.

Marriages to Han elite families were encouraged, and the Northern Wei started to arrange for Han Chinese elites to marry daughters of the Xianbei [[Tuoba]] royal family in the 480s.<ref name="Watson1991"/> More than fifty percent of Tuoba Xianbei princesses of the Northern Wei were married to southern Han Chinese men from the imperial families and aristocrats from southern China of the [[Southern dynasties]] who defected and moved north to join the Northern Wei.<ref>{{cite thesis |url=https://nrs.harvard.edu/urn-3:HUL.InstRepos:33493331 |title=Divorce and the Divorced Woman in Early Medieval China (First through Sixth Century) |pages=151, 152, 153 |last=Tang |first=Qiaomei |date=May 2016 |type=PhD |location=Cambridge, Massachusetts |publisher=Harvard University}}</ref> Some Han Chinese exiled royalty fled from southern China and defected to the Xianbei. Several daughters of the Xianbei [[Emperor Xiaowen of Northern Wei]] were married to Han Chinese elites, the [[Liu Song]] royal Liu Hui (劉輝), married Princess Lanling (蘭陵公主) of the Northern Wei,<ref>{{cite book|title=Papers on Far Eastern History|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=BdtBAAAAYAAJ&q=liu+hui+wei+princess|year=1983|publisher=Australian National University, Department of Far Eastern History.|page=86}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=Hinsch |first1=Bret |title=Women in Early Medieval China |date=2018 |publisher=Rowman & Littlefield |isbn=978-1538117972 |page=97 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=84BqDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA97}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=Hinsch |first1=Bret |title=Women in Imperial China |date=2016 |publisher=Rowman & Littlefield |isbn=978-1442271661 |page=72 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=1L7kDAAAQBAJ&pg=PA72}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=Lee |first1=Jen-der |editor1-last=Swartz |editor1-first=Wendy |editor2-last=Campany |editor2-first=Robert Ford |editor3-last=Lu |editor3-first=Yang |editor4-last=Choo |editor4-first=Jessey |title=Early Medieval China: A Sourcebook |date=2014 |publisher=Columbia University Press |isbn=978-0231531009 |pages=156–165 |edition=illustrated |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=AeiIl2y6vJQC&pg=PA161 |chapter=9. Crime and Punishment The Case of Liu Hui in the Wei Shu}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |author1=Australian National University. Dept. of Far Eastern History |title=Papers on Far Eastern History, Volumes 27–30 |date=1983 |publisher=Australian National University, Department of Far Eastern History. |pages=86, 87, 88 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=BdtBAAAAYAAJ&q=liu+hui+lanling}}</ref> Princess Huayang (華陽公主) to Sima Fei (司馬朏), a descendant of [[Jin dynasty (266–420)]] royalty, Princess Jinan (濟南公主) to Lu Daoqian (盧道虔), Princess Nanyang (南陽長公主) to [[Xiao Baoyin]] (蕭寶寅), a member of [[Southern Qi]] royalty.<ref>{{cite book|title=China: Dawn of a Golden Age, 200–750 AD|url=https://archive.org/details/bub_gb_JbdS-R3y72MC|quote=Xiao Baoyin.|year=2004|publisher=Metropolitan Museum of Art|isbn=978-1-58839-126-1|pages=[https://archive.org/details/bub_gb_JbdS-R3y72MC/page/n56 30]–}}</ref> [[Emperor Xiaozhuang of Northern Wei|Emperor Xiaozhuang of Northern Wei's]] sister the Shouyang Princess was wedded to the [[Liang dynasty]] ruler [[Emperor Wu of Liang]]'s son Xiao Zong (蕭綜).<ref>{{cite book|title=Ancient and Early Medieval Chinese Literature (vol.3 & 4): A Reference Guide, Part Three & Four|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=OWLPBAAAQBAJ&pg=PA1566 |date=22 September 2014|publisher=BRILL|isbn=978-90-04-27185-2|pages=1566–}}</ref>

After the [[Six Frontier Towns|Six Frontier Towns Rebellion]] and the events that followed, the Northern Wei split into [[Eastern Wei]] (534–550) and [[Western Wei]] (535–556) before becoming the [[Northern Qi]] (550–577) and [[Northern Zhou]] (557–581) respectively.<ref>{{cite book |first=Charles |last=Holcombe |title=A History of East Asia: From the Origins of Civilization to the Twenty-First Century |page=68 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |year=2011 |isbn=978-0-521-73164-5 }}</ref> The chaos allowed the Xianbei frontier nobility to enter the Central Plains and give pushback on the Wei's sinicization policies. The Northern Qi was ruled by the Gao clan, a Xianbeified Han Chinese family who relied on the Xianbei elites and favoured their traditions. Meanwhile, the Northern Zhou was ruled by the [[Yuwen]] clan of Xianbei ethnicity. Ruling over a predominantly Chinese population, the military reforms of the Western Wei and Northern Zhou saw an attempt to revive the Xianbei warrior culture, which includes reverting the sinicized names of the Northern Wei and rewarding Han Chinese officers with Xianbei names. The Prime Minister of Northern Zhou, [[Emperor Wen of Sui|Yang Jian]], later had these names restored back to Han names.

In 581, Yang Jian founded the [[Sui dynasty]] (581–618) and unified China in 589 after absorbing the [[Chen dynasty]] (557–589). When the Sui came to an end amidst peasant [[rebellions]] and renegade troops, his cousin, [[Emperor Gaozu of Tang|Li Yuan]], founded the [[Tang dynasty]] (618–907). Both Sui and Tang were founded by families who identified with their Han Chinese patrilineage, and were backed by an alliance of Chinese and Xianbei nobles from the Northern Zhou who sought to protect their common interest.<ref>Chen, Yinke [陳寅恪], 1943, Tang dai zheng zhi shi shu lun gao [Manuscript of Discussions on the Political History of the Tang dynasty] 唐代政治史述論稿. Chongqing [重慶], Shang wu [商務].</ref><ref>Chen, Yinke [陳寅恪] and Tang, Zhenchang [唐振常], 1997, Tang dai zheng zhi shi shu lun gao [Manuscript of Discussions on the Political History of the Tang dynasty] 唐代政治史述論稿. Shanghai [上海], Shanghai gu ji chu ban she [Shanghai Ancient Literature Press] 上海古籍出版社.</ref> Through these political establishments, the Xianbei who entered China and their culture were largely merged with the Chinese, examples such as the wife of [[Emperor Gaozu of Tang]], [[Empress Taimu|Duchess Dou]] and [[Emperor Taizong of Tang]]'s wife, [[Empress Zhangsun]], both having Xianbei ancestries.<ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=KLNrqn4WLZYC&pg=PA181 |title=Notable women of China: Shang dynasty to the early twentieth century|author=Barbara Bennett Peterson|editor=Barbara Bennett Peterson|year=2000|publisher=M.E. Sharpe|edition=illustrated|page=181|isbn=978-0-7656-0504-7|access-date=28 June 2010}}</ref> 

The Xianbei who remained behind in the northern grassland evolved into tribes of the [[Rouran Khaganate]] and [[Khitan people]]. In the west, the [[Tuyuhun]] remained independent until it was defeated by the [[Tibetan Empire]] in 670. After the fall of the kingdom, the Tuyuhun underwent a diaspora over a vast territory that stretched from the northwest into central and eastern parts of China. [[Murong Nuohebo]] led them eastward into central China, where they settled in modern [[Yinchuan]], Ningxia.