Editing William Shockley (section)

==Career==
Shockley was one of the first recruits to [[Bell Labs]] by [[Mervin Kelly]], who became director of research at the company in 1936 and focused on hiring [[solid-state physicist]]s.<ref name=":5" /> Shockley joined a group headed by [[Clinton Davisson]] in [[Murray Hill, New Jersey]].<ref>{{Cite book |last=Cooper |first=David Y. |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/anb/9780198606697.article.1302153 |title=Shockley, William Bradford (13 February 1910–12 August 1989), physicist |date=2000 |publisher=Oxford University Press |series=American National Biography Online|doi=10.1093/anb/9780198606697.article.1302153 }}</ref> Executives at Bell Labs had theorized that [[semiconductors]] may offer solid-state alternatives to the [[vacuum tube]]s used throughout Bell's nationwide telephone system. Shockley conceived a number of designs based on copper-oxide semiconductor materials, and with [[Walter Brattain]] unsuccessfully attempted to create a prototype in 1939.<ref name=":5">[https://www.britannica.com/technology/transistor/Innovation-at-Bell-Labs Transistor – Innovation at Bell Labs] Encyclopedia Britannica</ref>

Shockley published a number of fundamental papers on solid state physics in ''[[Physical Review]]''. In 1938, he received his first patent, "Electron Discharge Device", on [[electron multiplier]]s.<ref name="Shurkin2006p48" />[[File:William Shockley - U.S. Army maps (Bp463by2692).jpg|left|thumb|Shockley ({{em|left}}) during his years in military research]]When [[World War II]] broke out, Shockley's prior research was interrupted and he became involved in [[radar]] research in [[Manhattan]] ([[New York City]]). In May 1942, he took leave from Bell Labs to become a research director at [[Columbia University]]'s Anti-Submarine Warfare Operations Group.<ref>''Broken Genius'' p. 65–67</ref> This involved devising methods for countering the tactics of submarines with improved [[convoy]]ing techniques, optimizing [[depth charge]] patterns, and so on. Shockley traveled frequently to [[the Pentagon]] and Washington to meet high-ranking officers and government officials.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Dean Barrett |first=David |url=https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/1149147965 |title=140 days to Hiroshima : the story of Japan's last chance to avert Armageddon |date=2020 |isbn=978-1-63576-580-9 |location=New York |oclc=1149147965}}</ref>
In 1944, he organized a training program for [[B-29]] bomber pilots to use new [[radar]] bomb sights. In late 1944, he took a three-month tour to bases around the world to assess the results. For this project, Secretary of War [[Robert Porter Patterson|Robert Patterson]] awarded Shockley the [[Medal for Merit]] on October 17, 1946.<ref name="Shurkin2006p85"/>

In July 1945, the [[United States Department of War|War Department]] asked Shockley to prepare a report on the question of probable casualties from an invasion of the Japanese mainland. Shockley concluded:

{{blockquote|If the study shows that the behavior of nations in all historical cases comparable to Japan's has in fact been invariably consistent with the behavior of the troops in battle, then it means that the Japanese dead and ineffectives at the time of the defeat will exceed the corresponding number for the Germans. In other words, we shall probably have to kill at least 5 to 10 million Japanese. This might cost us between 1.7 and 4 million casualties including 400,000 to 800,000 killed.<ref name="Giangreco1997" />}}

This report influenced the decision of the United States to drop [[Atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki|atomic bombs]] on Hiroshima and Nagasaki, which preceded the surrender of Japan.<ref>{{cite journal |first=Robert P. |last=Newman |title=Hiroshima and the Trashing of Henry Stimson |journal=[[The New England Quarterly]] |volume=71 |issue=1 |date=1998 |page=27 |doi=10.2307/366722|jstor=366722 }}</ref>

Shockley was the first physicist to propose a [[Log-normal distribution|log-normal]] distribution to model the creation process for scientific research papers.<ref>The Artful Universe by John D. Barrow, Clarendon Press, Oxford, 1995, p. 239</ref>

===Development of the transistor===
Shortly after the war ended in 1945, Bell Labs formed a solid-state physics group, led by Shockley and chemist Stanley Morgan, which included [[John Bardeen]], [[Walter Brattain]], physicist [[Gerald Pearson]], chemist [[Robert Gibney]], electronics expert [[Hilbert Moore]], and several technicians. Their assignment was to seek a solid-state alternative to fragile glass [[vacuum tube]] amplifiers. First attempts were based on Shockley's ideas about using an external electrical field on a semiconductor to affect its conductivity. These experiments failed every time in all sorts of configurations and materials. The group was at a standstill until Bardeen suggested a theory that invoked [[surface states]] that prevented the field from penetrating the semiconductor. The group changed its focus to study these surface states and they met almost daily to discuss the work. The group had excellent rapport and freely exchanged ideas.<ref>Brattain quoted in ''Crystal Fire'' p. 127</ref>

By the winter of 1946 they had enough results that Bardeen submitted a paper on the surface states to ''[[Physical Review]]''. Brattain started experiments to study the surface states through observations made while shining a bright light on the semiconductor's surface. This led to several more papers (one of them co-authored with Shockley), which estimated the density of the surface states to be more than enough to account for their failed experiments. The pace of the work picked up significantly when they started to surround point contacts between the semiconductor and the conducting wires with [[electrolyte]]s. Moore built a circuit that allowed them to vary the frequency of the input signal easily. Finally they began to get some evidence of power amplification when Pearson, acting on a suggestion by Shockley, put a voltage on a droplet of glycol borate placed across a [[p–n junction]].<ref name="Crystal Fire p. 132">''Crystal Fire'' p.132</ref>
[[File:Bardeen Shockley Brattain 1948.JPG|thumb|John Bardeen (left), William Shockley and Walter Brattain (right) at [[Bell Labs]], 1948]]

Bell Labs' attorneys soon discovered Shockley's field effect principle had been anticipated and devices based on it patented in 1930 by [[Julius Lilienfeld]], who filed his [[MESFET]]-like patent in Canada on October 22, 1925.<ref>{{patent|CA|272437 |"Electric current control mechanism", first filed in Canada on October 22, 1925}}</ref><ref>[http://chem.ch.huji.ac.il/~eugeniik/history/lilienfeld.htm Lilienfeld] {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20061002065548/http://chem.ch.huji.ac.il/~eugeniik/history/lilienfeld.htm |date=October 2, 2006 }}</ref> Although the patent appeared "breakable" (it could not work) the patent attorneys based one of its four patent applications only on the Bardeen-Brattain point contact design. Three others (submitted first) covered the electrolyte-based transistors with Bardeen, Gibney and Brattain as the inventors.{{citation needed|date=June 2020}}

Shockley's name was not on any of these patent applications. This angered Shockley, who thought his name should also be on the patents because the work was based on his field effect idea. He even made efforts to have the patent written only in his name, and told Bardeen and Brattain of his intentions.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.ieeeghn.org/wiki/index.php/William_Shockley |title=William Shockley |work=IEEE Global History Network |publisher=IEEE |access-date=July 18, 2011}}</ref>

Shockley, angered by not being included on the patent applications, secretly continued his own work to build a different sort of transistor based on junctions instead of point contacts; he expected this kind of design would be more likely to be commercially viable. The point contact transistor, he believed, would prove to be fragile and difficult to manufacture. Shockley was also dissatisfied with certain parts of the explanation for how the point contact transistor worked and conceived of the possibility of [[minority carrier]] injection.

On February 13, 1948, another team member, [[John N. Shive]], built a point contact transistor with bronze contacts on the front and back of a thin wedge of [[germanium]], proving that [[Electron hole|holes]] could diffuse through bulk germanium and not just along the surface as previously thought.<ref name="crystal-fire">{{cite book
 | title = Crystal fire: the invention of the transistor and the birth of the information age
 | isbn = 978-0-393-31851-7
 |author1=Michael Riordan |author1-link=Michael Riordan (physicist) |author2=Lillian Hoddeson |author2-link=Lillian Hoddeson
 |name-list-style=amp | year = 1998
 | publisher = W. W. Norton & Company
 }}</ref>{{rp|153}}<ref name="True Genius">{{cite book
 |title=True genius: the life and science of John Bardeen : the only winner of two Nobel prizes in physics
 |last1=Hoddeson
 |first1=Lillian
 |last2=Daitch
 |first2=Vicki
 |date=2002
 |publisher=Joseph Henry Press
 |isbn=978-0-309-08408-6
 |url=https://archive.org/details/truegeniuslifesc0000hodd
 |access-date=December 30, 2014
 |url-access=registration
 }}
*{{cite magazine |author=Diana Buchwald |date=March–April 2003 |title=John Who? |url=http://www.americanscientist.org/bookshelf/pub/john-who |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150102044400/http://www.americanscientist.org/bookshelf/pub/john-who |archive-date=2015-01-02 |magazine=American Scientist |volume=91 |number=2}}</ref>{{rp|145}} Shive's invention sparked<ref name="Brittain1984p1695" /> Shockley's invention of the junction transistor.<ref name="crystal-fire"/>{{rp|143}} A few months later he invented an entirely new, considerably more robust, type of transistor with a layer or 'sandwich' structure. This structure went on to be used for the vast majority of all transistors into the 1960s, and evolved into the bipolar junction transistor. Shockley later described the workings of the team as a "mixture of cooperation and competition". He also said that he kept some of his own work secret until his "hand was forced" by Shive's 1948 advance.<ref name=":3">{{cite news
 | title = Inventors of the transistor followed diverse paths after 1947 discovery
 | url = https://news.google.com/newspapers?id=nqlJAAAAIBAJ&pg=4602,1428735
 | publisher = Associated press – Bangor Daily news
 | date = December 25, 1987
| access-date = May 6, 2012
| quote = 'mixture of cooperation and competition' and 'Shockley, eager to make his own contribution, said he kept some of his own work secret until "my hand was forced" in early 1948 by an advance reported by John Shive, another Bell Laboratories researcher'
}}</ref> Shockley worked out a rather complete description of what he called the "sandwich" transistor, and a first [[Proof of concept|proof of principle]] was obtained on April 7, 1949.

Meanwhile, Shockley worked on his [[Masterpiece|magnum opus]], ''[[Electrons and Holes in Semiconductors]]'' which was published as a 558-page treatise in 1950. The tome included Shockley's critical ideas of drift and diffusion and the differential equations that govern the flow of electrons in solid state crystals. [[Shockley diode equation|Shockley's diode equation]] is also described. This seminal work became the reference text for other scientists working to develop and improve new variants of the transistor and other devices based on semiconductors.<ref>''Broken Genius'', p 121-122</ref>

This resulted in his invention of the bipolar "[[Bipolar junction transistor|junction transistor]]", which was announced at a press conference on July 4, 1951.<ref>{{Cite web|url = http://www.computerhistory.org/semiconductor/timeline/1951-First.html|title = 1951 – First grown-junction transistors fabricated|publisher = [[Computer History Museum]]|year = 2007|access-date = July 3, 2013}}</ref>

In 1951, he was elected to the [[United States National Academy of Sciences|National Academy of Sciences]] (NAS). He was forty-one years old; this was rather young for such an election. Two years later, he was chosen as the recipient of the prestigious [[Comstock Prize in Physics|Comstock Prize]]<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.sns.ias.edu/~jnb/Vitae/NASaward/nasaward.html|title=Comstock Prize}}</ref> for Physics by the NAS, and was the recipient of many other awards and honors.

The ensuing publicity generated by the "invention of the transistor" often thrust Shockley to the fore, much to the chagrin of Bardeen and Brattain. Bell Labs management, however, consistently presented all three inventors as a team. Though Shockley would correct the record where reporters gave him sole credit for the invention,<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.pbs.org/transistor/album1/shockley/shockley3.html|title=Bill Shockley, Part 3 of 3|first=ScienCentral|last=ScienCentral|website=www.pbs.org}}</ref> he eventually infuriated and alienated Bardeen and Brattain, and he essentially blocked the two from working on the junction transistor. Bardeen began pursuing a theory for superconductivity and left Bell Labs in 1951. Brattain refused to work with Shockley further and was assigned to another group. Neither Bardeen nor Brattain had much to do with the development of the transistor beyond the first year after its invention.<ref>''Crystal Fire'' p. 278</ref>

Shockley left Bell Labs around 1953 and took a job at Caltech.<ref name=":4" />

Shockley, Bardeen and Brattain received the Nobel Prize in Physics in 1956.<ref name=":7" />

===Shockley Semiconductor===
{{Main|Shockley Semiconductor Laboratory}}
In 1956, Shockley started [[Shockley Semiconductor Laboratory]] in [[Mountain View, California]], which was close to his elderly mother in Palo Alto, California.<ref>{{cite news |title=Holding On |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2008/04/06/realestate/keymagazine/406Lede-t.html?pagewanted=all |quote=In 1955, the physicist William Shockley set up a semiconductor laboratory in Mountain View, partly to be near his mother in Palo Alto. ...|newspaper=[[The New York Times]] |date=April 6, 2008 |access-date=December 7, 2014 }}</ref><ref>{{cite news |title=Two Views of Innovation, Colliding in Washington |url=https://query.nytimes.com/gst/fullpage.html?res=9B07EEDC153BF930A25752C0A96E9C8B63& |quote=The co-inventor of the transistor and the founder of the valley's first chip company, William Shockley, moved to Palo Alto, Calif., because his mother lived there. ...|newspaper=[[The New York Times]] |date=January 13, 2008 |access-date=December 7, 2014 }}</ref> The company, a division of [[Beckman Instruments]], Inc., was the first establishment working on silicon semiconductor devices in what came to be known as [[Silicon Valley]].

Shockley recruited brilliant employees to his company, but alienated them by undermining them relentlessly.<ref name=":10">{{Cite web |last=SFGATE |first=Mike Moffitt |date=2018-08-21 |title=How a racist genius created Silicon Valley by being a terrible boss |url=https://www.sfgate.com/tech/article/Silicon-Valley-Shockley-racist-semiconductor-lab-13164228.php |access-date=2022-07-17 |website=SFGATE |language=en-US}}</ref><ref name=":9">{{Cite news |title=Electronics Pioneer William Shockley's Legacy |language=en |work=NPR.org |url=https://www.npr.org/templates/story/story.php?storyId=5573656? |access-date=2022-07-17}}</ref> "He may have been the worst manager in the history of electronics", according to his biographer Joel Shurkin.<ref name=":9" /><ref name=":10" /> Shockley was autocratic, domineering, erratic, hard-to-please, and increasingly paranoid.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2013 |title=Silicon Valley {{!}} American Experience {{!}} PBS |url=https://www.pbs.org/wgbh/americanexperience/films/silicon/ |access-date=2022-07-10 |website=www.pbs.org |language=en}}</ref><ref name=":8" /> In one well-known incident, he demanded [[lie detector]] tests to find the "culprit" after a company secretary suffered a minor cut.<ref name=":8">''Crystal Fire'' p. 247</ref> In late 1957, eight of Shockley's best researchers, who would come to be known as the "[[traitorous eight]]", resigned after Shockley decided not to continue research into silicon-based semiconductors.<ref name="Goodheart2006" /><ref name=":4" /> They went on to form [[Fairchild Semiconductor]], a loss from which Shockley Semiconductor never recovered and which led to its purchase by another company three years later. Over the course of the next 20 years, more than 65 new enterprises would end up having employee connections back to Fairchild.<ref name="NetValley">{{cite web|url=http://www.netvalley.com/silicon_valley/Legal_Bridge_From_El_Dorado_to_Silicon_Valley.html |title=A legal bridge spanning 100 years: from the gold mines of El Dorado to the "golden" startups of Silicon Valley |author=Gregory Gromov}}</ref>

A group of about thirty colleagues have met on and off since 1956 to reminisce about their time with Shockley, "the man who brought silicon to Silicon Valley", as the group's organizer said in 2002.<ref>{{cite press release|url=http://www.stanford.edu/dept/news/pr/02/shockley1023.html|title=William Shockley: still controversial, after all these years|publisher=Stanford University|date=October 22, 2002|author=Dawn Levy|access-date=June 14, 2005|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20050404102748/http://www.stanford.edu/dept/news/pr/02/shockley1023.html|archive-date=April 4, 2005|url-status=dead}}</ref>