Editing Watermill (section)

=== Western world ===
==== Classical antiquity ====
{{Further|List of ancient watermills}}
[[File:Roda de Vitruvi.jpg|thumb|upright=0.8|Model of a [[Roman Empire|Roman]] water-powered grain mill described by [[Vitruvius]]. The millstone (upper floor) is powered by an [[Water wheel#Types|undershot waterwheel]] by the way of a gear mechanism (lower floor)]]

The [[Hellenistic civilization|Greeks]] invented the two main components of watermills, the waterwheel and toothed gearing, and used, along with the [[Roman Empire|Romans]], undershot, overshot and breastshot waterwheel mills.<ref>{{harvnb|Oleson|1984|pp=325ff.}}; {{harvnb|Oleson|2000|pp=217–302}}; {{harvnb|Donners|Waelkens|Deckers|2002|pp=10−15}}; {{harvnb|Wikander|2000|pp=371−400}}</ref>

The earliest evidence of a water-driven wheel appears in the technical treatises ''Pneumatica'' and ''Parasceuastica'' of the Greek engineer [[Philo of Byzantium]] (ca. 280−220 BC).<ref>{{harvnb|Oleson|2000|p=233}}</ref> The British historian of technology M.J.T. Lewis has shown that those portions of Philo of Byzantium's mechanical treatise which describe water wheels and which have been previously regarded as later [[Arabic language|Arabic]] interpolations, actually date back to the Greek [[3rd century BC]] original.<ref>M. J. T. Lewis, Millstone and Hammer: the origins of water power (University of Hull Press 1997)</ref> The [[sakia|sakia gear]] is, already fully developed, for the first time attested in a 2nd-century BC [[Hellenistic]] wall painting in [[Ptolemaic Egypt]].<ref>{{harvnb|Oleson|2000|pp=234, 270}}</ref>

Lewis assigns the date of the invention of the [[Water wheel#Types|horizontal-wheeled]] mill to the Greek colony of [[Byzantium]] in the first half of the 3rd century BC, and that of the [[Water wheel#Types|vertical-wheeled]] mill to [[History of Ptolemaic Egypt|Ptolemaic]] [[Alexandria]] around 240 BC.<ref name="invention">{{harvnb|Wikander|2000|pp=396f.}}; {{harvnb|Donners|Waelkens|Deckers|2002|p=11}}; {{harvnb|Wilson|2002|pp=7f.}}</ref>

The Greek geographer [[Strabo]] reports in his ''Geography'' a water-powered [[grain-mill]] to have existed near the palace of king [[Mithradates VI Eupator]] at [[Cabira]], [[Asia Minor]], before 71 BC.<ref>{{harvnb|Wikander|1985|p=160}}; {{harvnb|Wikander|2000|p=396}}</ref>

The Roman engineer [[Vitruvius]] has the first technical description of a watermill, dated to 40/10 BC; the device is fitted with an [[Water wheel#Types|undershot wheel]] and power is transmitted via a [[sakia|gearing mechanism]].<ref name="Undershot wheel mill">{{harvnb|Wikander|2000|pp=373f.}}; {{harvnb|Donners|Waelkens|Deckers|2002|p=12}}</ref> He also seems to indicate the existence of water-powered [[kneading]] machines.<ref name="Wikander 2000, 402">{{harvnb|Wikander|2000|p=402}}</ref>

The Greek epigrammatist [[Antipater of Thessalonica]] tells of an advanced [[Water wheel#Types|overshot wheel]] mill around 20 BC/10 AD.<ref name="Overshot wheel mill">{{harvnb|Wikander|2000|p=375}}; {{harvnb|Donners|Waelkens|Deckers|2002|p=13}}</ref> He praised for its use in grinding grain and the reduction of human labour:<ref>Lewis, p. vii.</ref>

{{blockquote|Hold back your hand from the mill, you grinding girls; even if the cockcrow heralds the dawn, sleep on.  For [[Demeter]] has imposed the labours of your hands on the [[nymph]]s, who leaping down upon the topmost part of the wheel, rotate its axle; with encircling cogs,''<ref>The translation of this word is crucial to the interpretation of the passage.  Traditionally, it has been translated as 'spoke' (e.g. Reynolds, p. 17), but Lewis (p. 66) points out that, while its primary meaning is 'ray' (as a sunbeam), its only concrete meaning is 'cog'. Since a horizontal-wheeled corn mill does not need gearing (and hence has no cogs), the mill must have been vertical-wheeled.</ref>'' it turns the hollow weight of the [[Nisyros|Nisyrian]] [[millstone]]s.  If we learn to feast toil-free on the fruits of the earth, we taste again the [[golden age]].}}

The Roman encyclopedist [[Pliny the Elder|Pliny]] mentions in his ''[[Naturalis Historia]]'' of around 70 AD water-powered [[trip hammer]]s operating in the greater part of Italy.<ref name="Trip hammer">{{harvnb|Wikander|1985|p=158}}; {{harvnb|Wikander|2000|p=403}}; {{harvnb|Wilson|2002|p=16}}</ref> There is evidence of a [[fulling mill]] in 73/74 AD in [[Antioch]], [[Roman Syria]].<ref name="Wikander 2000, 406">{{harvnb|Wikander|2000|p=406}}</ref>

The 2nd century AD [[Barbegal aqueduct and mill|multiple mill complex of Barbegal]] in southern [[France]] has been described as "the greatest known concentration of mechanical power in the [[ancient world]]".<ref>Kevin Greene, "Technological Innovation and Economic Progress in the Ancient World: M.I. Finley Re-Considered", ''The Economic History Review'', New Series, Vol. 53, No. 1. (Feb., 2000), pp. 29-59 (39)</ref> It featured 16 overshot waterwheels to power an equal number of [[flour]] mills. The capacity of the mills has been estimated at 4.5 tons of [[flour]] per day, sufficient to supply enough bread for the 12,500 inhabitants occupying the town of [[Arles|Arelate]] at that time.<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.etab.ac-caen.fr/lescourtils/provence/barbegal.htm |title=La meunerie de Barbegal<!-- Bot generated title --> |access-date=2008-04-11 |archive-date=2007-01-17 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070117123744/http://www.etab.ac-caen.fr/lescourtils/provence/barbegal.htm |url-status=dead }}</ref> A similar mill complex existed on the [[Janiculum]] hill, whose supply of flour for [[Rome]]'s population was judged by emperor [[Aurelian]] important enough to be included in the [[Aurelian walls]] in the late 3rd century.

A [[Water wheel#Types|breastshot wheel]] mill dating to the late 2nd century AD was excavated at [[Les Martres-de-Veyre]], France.<ref name="Wikander 2000, 375">{{harvnb|Wikander|2000|p=375}}</ref>

[[File:Römische Sägemühle.svg|thumb|left|Scheme of the Roman [[Hierapolis sawmill]], the earliest known machine to incorporate the mechanism of a [[crank (mechanism)|crank]] and [[connecting rod]]<ref name="Ritti, Grewe, Kessener 2007, 161"/>]]

The 3rd century AD [[Hierapolis water-powered stone sawmill]] is the earliest known machine to incorporate the mechanism of a [[crank (mechanism)|crank]] and [[connecting rod]].<ref name="Ritti, Grewe, Kessener 2007, 161">{{harvnb|Ritti|Grewe|Kessener|2007|p=161}}</ref> Further sawmills, also powered by crank and connecting rod mechanisms, are archaeologically attested for the 6th century AD water-powered stone sawmills at [[Gerasa]] and [[Ephesus]].<ref>{{harvnb|Ritti|Grewe|Kessener|2007|pp=149–153}}</ref> Literary references to water-powered [[marble]] saws in what is now [[Germany]] can be found in [[Ausonius]] 4th century AD poem [[Mosella]]. They also seem to be indicated about the same time by the [[Christian saint]] [[Gregory of Nyssa]] from [[Anatolia]], demonstrating a diversified use of water-power in many parts of the [[Roman Empire]].<ref>{{harvnb|Wilson|2002|p=16}}</ref>

[[File:Roman mill at Chemtou.jpg|thumb|Roman [[turbine]] mill at [[Chemtou]], [[Tunisia]]. The tangential water inflow of the millrace made the horizontal wheel in the shaft turn like a true turbine, the earliest known.<ref name="Wilson 1995 507f">{{harvnb|Wilson|1995|pp=507f.}}; {{harvnb|Wikander|2000|p=377}}; {{harvnb|Donners|Waelkens|Deckers|2002|p=13}}</ref>]]

The earliest [[Water turbine|turbine]] mill was found in [[Chemtou]] and [[Testour]], [[Roman North Africa]], dating to the late 3rd or early 4th century AD.<ref name="Wilson 1995 507f"/> A possible water-powered [[Blast furnace|furnace]] has been identified at [[Marseille]], France.<ref name="Wikander 2000, 407">{{harvnb|Wikander|2000|p=407}}</ref>

Mills were commonly used for grinding grain into flour (attested by [[Pliny the Elder]]), but industrial uses as [[fulling]] and sawing [[marble]] were also applied.<ref>Lewis, ''passim''.</ref>

The Romans used both fixed and floating water wheels and introduced water power to other provinces of the [[Roman Empire]].  So-called 'Greek Mills' used water wheels with a horizontal wheel (and vertical shaft).  A "Roman Mill" features a vertical wheel (on a horizontal shaft).  Greek style mills are the older and simpler of the two designs, but only operate well with high water velocities and with small diameter millstones. Roman style mills are more complicated as they require gears to transmit the power from a shaft with a horizontal axis to one with a vertical axis.

Although to date only a few dozen Roman mills are archaeologically traced, the widespread use of aqueducts in the period suggests that many remain to be discovered. Recent excavations in Roman London, for example, have uncovered what appears to be a [[tide mill]] together with a possible sequence of mills worked by an aqueduct running along the side of the [[River Fleet]].<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.kentarchaeology.ac/authors/005.pdf |title=Rob Spain: A possible Roman Tide Mill |access-date=2008-03-08 |archive-date=2011-05-17 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110517013738/http://www.kentarchaeology.ac/authors/005.pdf |url-status=dead }}</ref>

In 537 AD, [[ship mill]]s were ingeniously used by the [[East Rome|East Roman]] general [[Belisarius]], when the besieging [[Ostrogoths|Goths]] cut off the water supply for those mills.<ref name="Wikander 2000, 383">{{harvnb|Wikander|2000|p=383}}</ref> These floating mills had a wheel that was attached to a boat moored in a fast flowing river.

<gallery class="center">
File:Undershot water wheel schematic.svg|Undershot water wheel, applied for watermilling since the 1st century BC<ref name="Undershot wheel mill"/>
Image:Overshot water wheel schematic.svg|Overshot water wheel, applied for watermilling since the 1st century BC<ref name="Overshot wheel mill"/>
Image:Breastshot water wheel schematic.png|Breastshot water wheel, applied for watermilling since the 3rd century AD<ref name="Wikander 2000, 375"/> 
</gallery>

==== Middle Ages ====
{{Further|List of early medieval watermills}}
[[Image:Medieval mill with undershot wheel.png|thumb|right|Medieval watermill]]
[[File:Shipmills, Martyrdom of St Ursula at Cologne (detail).jpg|thumb|250px|German [[ship mill]]s on the [[Rhine]], around 1411]]

The surviving evidence for watermills sharply increases with the emergence of documentary genres such as [[Monastery|monastic]] [[charter]]s, Christian [[hagiography]] and Germanic [[legal code]]s. These were more inclined to address watermilling, a mostly rural work process, than the [[Classical antiquity|ancient]] urban-centered literary class had been.<ref>{{harvnb|Wikander|2000|pp=372f.}}</ref><ref>{{harvnb|Wilson|2002|p=3}}</ref> By [[Carolingian dynasty|Carolingian]] times, references to watermills had become "innumerable" in Frankish records.<ref name="Wikander 1985, 170, 45">{{harvnb|Wikander|1985|p=170, fn. 45}}</ref> The [[Domesday Book]], compiled in 1086, records 5,624 watermills in [[Norman England|England]] alone.<ref>{{harvnb|Gimpel|1977|pp=11–12}}</ref> Later research estimates a less conservative number of 6,082 that should be considered a minimum as the northern reaches of England were never properly recorded.<ref>{{harvnb|Langdon|2004|pp=9–10}}</ref> In 1300, this number had risen to between 10,000 and 15,000.<ref>{{harvnb|Langdon|2004|pp=11}}</ref> By the early 7th century, watermills were also well established in [[Ireland]]. A century later they began to spread across the former Roman Rhine and Danube frontier into the other parts of [[Germany]].<ref>{{harvnb|Wikander|2000|p=400}}</ref> [[Ship mill]]s and [[tide mill]]s, both of which yet unattested for the ancient period,<ref>{{harvnb|Wikander|2000|pp=379 & 383f.}}</ref> were introduced in the 6th century.

; Tide mills

In recent years, a number of new archaeological finds has consecutively pushed back the date of the earliest tide mills, all of which were discovered on the [[Ireland|Irish]] coast: A 6th century [[Water wheel#Types|vertical-wheeled]] tide mill was located at Killoteran near [[Waterford]].<ref name="Murphy 2005">{{harvnb|Murphy|2005}}</ref> A twin flume [[Water wheel#Types|horizontal-wheeled]] tide mill dating to c. 630 was excavated on [[Little Island, Cork|Little Island]].<ref name="Wikander 1985, 155–157">{{harvnb|Wikander|1985|pp=155–157}}</ref><ref name="Rynne 2000, 10, fig. 1.2; 17; 49">{{harnvb|Rynne|2000|pp=10, fig. 1.2; 17; 49}}</ref> Alongside it, another tide mill was found which was powered by a vertical undershot wheel.<ref name="Wikander 1985, 155–157"/><ref name="Rynne 2000, 10, fig. 1.2; 17; 49"/> The [[Nendrum Monastery mill]] from 787 was situated on an island in [[Strangford Lough]] in [[Northern Ireland]]. Its millstones are 830&nbsp;mm in diameter and the horizontal wheel is estimated to have developed {{convert|7/8|HP|W}} at its peak. Remains of an earlier mill dated at 619 were also found at the site.<ref>{{harvnb|McErlean|Crothers|2007}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.nendrum.utvinternet.com/tmill/ |title=Recently discovered Tide Mill from 787 AD at Nendrum Monastic Site |access-date=2008-04-10 |archive-date=2007-09-27 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070927225336/http://www.nendrum.utvinternet.com/tmill/ |url-status=dead }}</ref>

; Survey of industrial mills

In a 2005 survey the scholar Adam Lucas identified the following first appearances of various industrial mill types in Western Europe. Noticeable is the preeminent role of France in the introduction of new innovative uses of waterpower.  However, he has drawn attention to the dearth of studies of the subject in several other countries.

{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;" cellpadding="2"
|- style="background: #ececec;"
!colspan="12" | '''First Appearance of Various Industrial Mills in Medieval Europe, AD 770-1443''' <ref>Adam Robert Lucas, 'Industrial Milling in the Ancient and Medieval Worlds. A Survey of the Evidence for an Industrial Revolution in Medieval Europe', ''Technology and Culture'', Vol. 46, (Jan. 2005), pp. 1-30 (17).</ref>
|-
!'''Type of mill'''
! '''Date'''
! '''Country'''
|-
|Malt mill
|770
|France
|-
|[[Fulling mill]]
|1080
|France
|-
|Tanning mill
|c. 1134
|France
|-
|Forge mill
|ca. 1200
|England, France
|-
|Tool-sharpening mill
|1203
|France
|-
|Hemp mill
|1209
|France
|-
|Bellows
|1269, 1283
|Slovakia, France
|-
|[[Paper mill]]<ref name="Burns 1996, 417f.">{{harvnb|Burns|1996|pp=417f.}}</ref>
|1282
|Spain
|-
|[[Sawmill]]
|c. 1300
|France
|-
|Ore-crushing mill
|1317
|Germany
|-
|[[Blast furnace]]
|1384
|France
|-
|Cutting and [[slitting mill]]
|1443
|France
|-
|}