Editing Wallachia (section)

==History==
{{History of Romania}}

===Ancient times===
{{Main|Getae|Dacians|Dacia|Trajan's Dacian Wars|Domitian's Dacian War|Roman Dacia}}

In the [[Trajan's Dacian Wars|Second Dacian War]] (AD 105) western Oltenia became part of the [[Roman province]] of [[Roman Dacia|Dacia]], with parts of later Wallachia included in the [[Moesia|Moesia Inferior]] province. The Roman ''[[Limes (Roman Empire)|limes]]'' was initially built along the [[Olt River]] in 119 before being moved slightly to the east in the second century, during which time it stretched from the [[Danube]] up to [[Rucăr]] in the Carpathians. The Roman line fell back to the Olt in 245 and, in 271, the Romans pulled out of the region.

The area was subject to [[romanization (cultural)|Romanization]] also during the [[Migration Period]], when most of present-day [[Romania]] was also invaded by [[Goths]] and [[Sarmatians]] known as the [[Chernyakhov culture]], followed by waves of other [[nomad]]s. In 328, the Romans built a [[Constantine's Bridge (Danube)|bridge]] between [[Sucidava]] and [[Oescus]] (near [[Gigen]]) which indicates that there was a significant trade with the peoples north of the Danube. A short period of Roman rule in the area is attested under Emperor [[Constantine the Great]],<ref>Giurescu, p. 37; Ștefănescu, p. 155</ref> after he attacked the Goths (who had settled north of the Danube) in 332. The period of Goth rule ended when the [[Huns]] arrived in the [[Pannonian Basin]] and, under [[Attila]], attacked and destroyed some 170 settlements on both sides of the Danube.

===Early Middle Ages===
{{Main|Origin of the Romanians|Romania in the Early Middle Ages}}

[[Byzantine Empire|Byzantine]] influence is evident during the fifth to sixth century, such as the site at [[Ipotești–Cândești culture]], but from the second half of the sixth century and in the seventh century, [[Slavs]] crossed the territory of Wallachia and settled in it, on their way to Byzantium, occupying the southern bank of the Danube.<ref>Giurescu, p. 38</ref> In 593, the Byzantine commander-in-chief [[Priscus (magister militum)|Priscus]] defeated Slavs, [[Pannonian Avars|Avars]] and [[Gepids]] on future Wallachian territory, and, in 602, Slavs suffered a crucial defeat in the area; [[Maurice (emperor)|Flavius Mauricius Tiberius]], who ordered his army to be deployed north of the Danube, encountered his troops' strong opposition.<ref>Warren Treadgold, ''A Concise History of Byzantium'', New York, St Martin's Press, 2001</ref>
[[File:Balkans850.png|alt=A map of the Bulgarian Empire and the Balkans in the ninth century|thumb|The [[Bulgarian lands across the Danube]] in the ninth century, after the territorial expansion under Krum, Omurtag and Presian]]
From its establishment in 681 to approximately the [[Hungarians]]' conquest of [[Transylvania]] at the end of the tenth century, the [[First Bulgarian Empire]] controlled the territory of Wallachia. With the decline and subsequent [[Byzantine conquest of Bulgaria]] (from the second half of the tenth century up to 1018), Wallachia came under the control of the [[Pechenegs]], [[Turkic peoples]] who extended their rule west through the tenth and 11th century, until they were defeated around 1091, when the [[Cumans]] of southern Ruthenia took control of the lands of Wallachia.<ref>Giurescu, pp. 39–40</ref> Beginning with the tenth century, Byzantine, Bulgarian, Hungarian, and later Western sources mention the existence of small polities, possibly peopled by, among others, [[Vlachs]] led by ''[[knyaz]]es'' and ''[[voivode]]s''.

In 1241, during the [[Mongol invasion of Europe]], Cuman domination was ended—a direct Mongol rule over Wallachia was not attested.<ref name="Giurescu, p. 39">Giurescu, p. 39</ref> Part of Wallachia was probably briefly disputed by the [[Kingdom of Hungary]] and [[Second Bulgarian Empire|Bulgarians]] in the following period,<ref name="Giurescu, p. 39"/> but it appears that the severe weakening of Hungarian authority during the Mongol attacks contributed to the establishment of the new and stronger polities attested in Wallachia for the following decades.<ref>Ștefănescu, p. 111</ref>

===Creation===
{{Main|Founding of Wallachia}}
[[Image:Viennese Illuminated Chronicle Posada.jpg|thumb|upright|The [[Battle of Posada]] in the ''[[Chronicon Pictum]]'']]

One of the first written pieces of evidence of local voivodes is in connection with [[Litovoi]] (1272), who ruled over the land on each side of the Carpathians (including [[Hațeg Country]] in Transylvania), and refused to pay [[tribute]] to [[Ladislaus IV of Hungary]]. His successor was his brother [[Bărbat]] (1285–1288). The continuing weakening of the Hungarian state by further Mongol invasions (1285–1319) and the fall of the [[Árpád dynasty]] opened the way for the unification of Wallachian polities, and independence from Hungarian rule.

[[File:MirceaCelBatranSeal1390.png|thumb|upright|left|The seal of Voivode [[Mircea I of Wallachia]] from 1390, depicting the coat of arms of Wallachia]]

Wallachia's creation, held by local traditions to have been the work of one ''[[Radu Negru]]'' (Black Radu), is historically connected with [[Basarab I of Wallachia]] (1310–1352), who rebelled against [[Charles I of Hungary]] and took up rule on either side of the Olt, establishing his residence in [[Câmpulung]] as the first ruler of the [[House of Basarab]]. Basarab refused to grant Hungary the lands of [[Făgăraș]], [[Almaș]] and the [[Banate of Severin]], defeated Charles in the [[Battle of Posada]] (1330), and, according to Romanian historian [[Ștefan Ștefănescu]], extended his lands to the east, to comprise lands as far as [[Kiliya]] in the [[Budjak]] (reportedly providing the origin of ''[[Bessarabia]]'');<ref>Ștefănescu, p. 114</ref> the supposed rule over the latter was not preserved by the princes that followed, as Kilia was under the rule of the [[Nogais]] c. 1334.<ref>Ștefănescu, p. 119</ref>

There is evidence that the [[Second Bulgarian Empire]] [[Bulgarian lands across the Danube|ruled]] at least nominally the Wallachian lands up to the Rucăr–[[Bran, Brașov|Bran]] corridor as late as the late 14th century. In a charter by [[Radu I of Wallachia|Radu I]], the Wallachian voivode requests that [[tsar]] [[Ivan Alexander of Bulgaria]] order his customs officers at Rucăr and the [[Dâmboviţa River]] bridge to collect tax following the law. The presence of Bulgarian customs officers at the [[Carpathians]] indicates a Bulgarian suzerainty over those lands, though Radu's imperative tone hints at a strong and increasing Wallachian autonomy.<ref name="pavlov">{{cite web |url=http://liternet.bg/publish13/p_pavlov/za.htm |title=За северната граница на Второто българско царство през XIII–XIV в. |last=Павлов |first=Пламен |publisher=LiterNet |language=bg |access-date=2009-10-08 |archive-date=31 January 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200131212343/https://liternet.bg/publish13/p_pavlov/za.htm |url-status=live }}</ref> The medieval structure of Wallachia was modelled after the Bulgarian one, including the adoption of Old Church Slavonic feudal terminology such as {{lang|ro|ocină}} - inherited land.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Popa-Gorjanu |first=Cosmin |date=2009-01-01 |title=The question of feudalism in Romanian Principalities |url=https://www.academia.edu/128300558/The_question_of_feudalism_in_Romanian_Principalities|website= academia.edu|p=232-233}}</ref> Under [[Radu I of Wallachia|Radu I]] and his successor [[Dan I of Wallachia|Dan I]], the realms in Transylvania and Severin continued to be disputed with Hungary.<ref>Ștefănescu, p. 94</ref> Basarab was succeeded by [[Nicholas Alexander of Wallachia|Nicholas Alexander]], followed by [[Vladislav I of Wallachia|Vladislav I]]. Vladislav attacked Transylvania after [[Louis I of Hungary|Louis I]] occupied lands south of the [[Danube]], conceded to recognize him as overlord in 1368, but rebelled again in the same year; his rule also witnessed the first confrontation between Wallachia and the [[Ottoman Empire]] (a battle in which Vladislav was allied with [[Ivan Shishman of Bulgaria|Ivan Shishman]]).<ref>Ștefănescu, pp. 93–94</ref>

[[File:Early Wallachia.png|thumb|Probable location of polities in Wallachia around 1246 AD, as described in the [[Diploma of the Joannites]]]]

===1400–1600===
{{Main|Romania in the Middle Ages}}

====Mircea the Elder to Radu the Great====
[[File:Tara Rumaneasca map.png|thumb|upright=1.25|Territories held by Wallachian prince Mircea the Elder, {{circa}} 1390<ref>Petre Dan, ''Hotarele românismului în date'', Editura, Litera International, Bucharest, 2005, pp. 32, 34. {{ISBN|973-675-278-X}}</ref>]]

As the entire [[Balkans]] became an integral part of the growing Ottoman Empire (a process that concluded with the [[fall of Constantinople]] to Sultan [[Mehmed the Conqueror]] in 1453), Wallachia became engaged in frequent confrontations in the final years of the reign of [[Mircea I of Wallachia|Mircea I]] (r. 1386–1418). Mircea initially defeated the Ottomans in several battles, including the [[Battle of Rovine]] in 1394, driving them away from [[Dobruja]] and briefly extending his rule to the [[Danube Delta]], Dobruja and [[Silistra]] (c. 1400–1404).<ref>Ștefănescu, p. 139</ref> He swung between alliances with [[Sigismund, Holy Roman Emperor]], and [[Kingdom of Poland (1385–1569)|Jagiellon Poland]] (taking part in the [[Battle of Nicopolis]]),<ref>Ștefănescu, p. 97</ref> and accepted a peace treaty with the Ottomans in 1417, after [[Mehmed I]] took control of [[Turnu Măgurele]] and [[Giurgiu]].<ref>Giurescu, ''Istoria Românilor'', p. 479</ref> The two ports remained part of the Ottoman state, with brief interruptions, until 1829. In 1418–1420, [[Michael I of Wallachia|Michael I]] defeated the Ottomans in Severin, only to be killed in battle by the counter-offensive; in 1422, the danger was averted for a short while when [[Dan II of Wallachia|Dan II]] inflicted a defeat on [[Murad II]] with the help of [[Pippo Spano]].<ref>Ștefănescu, p. 105</ref>
[[File:Nuremberg chronicles f 270v (Valachia).jpg|thumb|left|Wallachia as pictured in the 1493 ''[[Nuremberg Chronicle]]'']]

The peace signed in 1428 inaugurated a period of internal crisis, as Dan had to defend himself against [[Radu II of Wallachia|Radu II]], who led the first in a series of [[Boyars of Moldavia and Wallachia|boyar]] coalitions against established princes.<ref>Ștefănescu, pp. 105–106</ref> Victorious in 1431 (the year when the boyar-backed [[Alexander I Aldea]] took the throne), boyars were dealt successive blows by [[Vlad II Dracul]] (1436–1442; 1443–1447), who nevertheless attempted to compromise between the Ottoman Sultan and the [[Holy Roman Empire]].<ref>Ștefănescu, p. 106</ref>
[[File:TurnulChindiei.jpg|thumb|upright|right|[[Chindia Tower]] in [[Târgoviște]]]]

The following decade was marked by the conflict between the rival houses of [[House of Dănești|Dănești]] and [[House of Drăculești|Drăculești]]. Faced with both internal and external conflict, [[Vlad II Dracul]] reluctantly agreed to pay the [[tribute]] demanded of him by the Ottoman Empire, despite his affiliation with the [[Order of the Dragon]], a group of independent noblemen whose creed had been to repel the Ottoman invasion. As part of the tribute, the sons of [[Vlad II Dracul]] ([[Radu cel Frumos]] and [[Vlad the Impaler|Vlad III Dracula]]) were taken into Ottoman custody. Recognizing the Christian resistance to their invasion, leaders of the Ottoman Empire released Vlad III to rule in 1448 after his father's assassination in 1447.

[[File:Vlad Ţepeş, the Impaler, Prince of Wallachia (1456-1462) (died 1477).jpg|thumb|upright|right|[[Vlad the Impaler]] (''Vlad Țepeș''), [[Voivode of Wallachia]]]]
Known as Vlad III the Impaler or Vlad III Dracula, he immediately put to death the boyars who had conspired against his father, and was characterized as both a national hero and a cruel [[tyrant]].{{sfn|Cazacu|2017|pp=199–202}} He was cheered for restoring order to a destabilized principality, yet showed no mercy toward thieves, murderers or anyone who plotted against his rule. Vlad demonstrated his intolerance for criminals by utilizing [[impalement]] as a form of execution. Vlad fiercely resisted Ottoman rule, having both repelled the Ottomans and been pushed back several times.

[[File:PoienariCastle1.jpg|thumb|left|[[Poienari Castle]], one of the royal seats of [[Vlad the Impaler|Vlad III Dracul]]]]
The [[Transylvanian Saxons]] were also furious with him for strengthening the borders of Wallachia, which interfered with their control of trade routes. In retaliation, the Saxons distributed grotesque poems of cruelty and other propaganda, demonizing Vlad III Dracula as a drinker of blood.<ref>{{cite book |url=https://www.scribd.com/document/298070110/Die-Geschichte-Dracole-Waide |title=Consuming News: Newspapers and Print Culture in Early Modern Europe (1500–1800) |editor=Gerhild Scholz Williams |editor2=William Layher |pages=14–34 |access-date=23 July 2019 |archive-date=8 March 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210308200054/https://www.scribd.com/document/298070110/Die-Geschichte-Dracole-Waide |url-status=live }}</ref> These tales strongly influenced an eruption of vampiric fiction throughout the West and, in particular, Germany. They also inspired the main character in the 1897 Gothic novel ''[[Dracula]]'' by [[Bram Stoker]].<ref>{{cite book |author=Simone Berni |title=Dracula by Bram Stoker: The Mystery of The Early Editions |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=cm36CwAAQBAJ&pg=PA67 |year=2016 |publisher=Lulu.com |isbn=978-1-326-62179-7 |page=57}}{{self-published source|date=February 2020}}</ref>{{self-published inline|date=February 2020}}

In 1462, Vlad III was defeated by Mehmed the Conqueror during his offensive at the [[Night Attack at Târgovişte]] before being forced to retreat to [[Târgoviște]] and accepting to pay an increased tribute.<ref>Ștefănescu, pp. 115–118</ref> Meanwhile, Vlad III faced parallel conflicts with his brother, Radu cel Frumos, (r. 1437/1439–1475), and [[Basarab Laiotă cel Bătrân]]. This led to the conquest of Wallachia by Radu, who would face his own struggles with the resurgent Vlad III and Basarab Laiotă cel Bătrân during his 11-year reign.<ref>Ștefănescu, pp. 117–118, 125</ref> Subsequently, [[Radu IV the Great]] (Radu cel Mare, who ruled 1495–1508) reached several compromises with the boyars, ensuring a period of internal stability that contrasted his clash with [[Bogdan III the One-Eyed]] of Moldavia.<ref>Ștefănescu, p. 146</ref>

====Mihnea cel Rău to Petru Cercel====
The late 15th century saw the ascension of the powerful [[Craiovești]] family, virtually independent rulers of the [[Oltenia]]n [[Ban (title)|banat]], who sought Ottoman support in their rivalry with [[Mihnea cel Rău]] (1508–1510) and replaced him with [[Vlad cel Tânăr|Vlăduț]]. After the latter proved to be hostile to the bans, the House of Basarab formally ended with the rise of [[Neagoe Basarab]], a Craioveşti.<ref>Ștefănescu, pp. 140–141</ref> Neagoe's peaceful rule (1512–1521) was noted for its cultural aspects (the building of the [[Curtea de Argeş Cathedral]] and [[Renaissance]] influences). It was also a period of increased influence for the [[Transylvanian Saxons|Saxon]] merchants in [[Brașov]] and [[Sibiu]], and of Wallachia's alliance with [[Louis II of Hungary and Bohemia|Louis II of Hungary]].<ref>Ștefănescu, pp. 141–144</ref> Under [[Teodosie]], the country was again under a four-month-long Ottoman occupation, a military administration that seemed to be an attempt to create a Wallachian ''[[Subdivisions of the Ottoman Empire|Pashaluk]]''.<ref name="Ștefănescu, pp. 144–145">Ștefănescu, pp. 144–145</ref> This danger rallied all boyars in support of [[Radu de la Afumaţi]] (four rules between 1522 and 1529), who lost the battle after an agreement between the Craiovești and Sultan [[Süleyman I|Süleyman the Magnificent]]; Prince Radu eventually confirmed Süleyman's position as suzerain and agreed to pay an even higher tribute.<ref name="Ștefănescu, pp. 144–145"/>

[[File:Moldavia, Transylvania and Wallachia under Michael the Brave's authority (1600).png|thumb|upright=1.25|Wallachia (highlighted in green) towards the end of the 16th century]]

Ottoman suzerainty remained virtually unchallenged throughout the following 90 years. [[Radu Paisie]], who was deposed by Süleyman in 1545, ceded the port of [[Brăila]] to the Ottoman administration in the same year. His successor [[Mircea Ciobanul]] (1545–1554; 1558–1559), a prince without any claim to noble heritage, was imposed on the throne and consequently agreed to a decrease in autonomy (increasing [[tax]]es and carrying out an armed intervention in Transylvania – supporting the pro-Turkish [[János Szapolyai|John Zápolya]]).<ref>Ștefănescu, p. 162</ref> Conflicts between boyar families became stringent after the rule of [[Pătrașcu cel Bun|Pătrașcu the Good]], and boyar ascendancy over rulers was obvious under [[Petru cel Tânăr|Petru the Younger]] (1559–1568; a reign dominated by [[Chiajna|Doamna Chiajna]] and marked by huge increases in taxes), [[Mihnea Turcitul]], and [[Petru Cercel]].<ref>Ștefănescu, pp. 163–164</ref>

The Ottoman Empire increasingly relied on Wallachia and Moldavia for the supply and maintenance of its [[Military of the Ottoman Empire|military forces]]; the [[Wallachian Army|local army]], however, soon disappeared due to the increased costs and the much more obvious efficiency of [[mercenary]] troops.<ref>Berza; Djuvara, pp. 24–26</ref>

===17th century===
{{Main|Early Modern Romania}}
[[File:Mihai Viteazul fighting the Turks, Giurgiu, October 1595.jpg|thumb|left|Fighting between Michael the Brave and the Ottomans in [[Giurgiu]], 1595]]

Initially profiting from Ottoman support, [[Michael the Brave]] ascended to the throne in 1593, and attacked the troops of [[Murad III]] north and south of the Danube in an alliance with Transylvania's [[Sigismund Báthory]] and Moldavia's [[Aron Vodă]] (see [[Battle of Călugăreni]]). He soon placed himself under the suzerainty of [[Rudolf II, Holy Roman Emperor|Rudolf II]], the [[Holy Roman Emperor]], and, in 1599–1600, intervened in [[Transylvania]] against [[Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth|Poland]]'s [[List of Polish monarchs|king]] [[Sigismund III Vasa]], placing the region under his authority; his brief rule also extended to [[Moldavia]] later in the following year.<ref>Ștefănescu, pp. 169–180</ref> For a brief period, Michael the Brave ruled (in a personal, but not formal, union)<ref>{{cite web |url=http://epa.oszk.hu/00400/00476/00005/pdf/13.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070116172337/http://epa.oszk.hu/00400/00476/00005/pdf/13.pdf |archive-date=2007-01-16 |url-status=live |title=Cãlin Goina : How the State Shaped the Nation : an Essay on the Making of the Romanian Nation |website=Epa.oszk.hu |access-date=11 November 2017}}</ref> most of the territories where Romanians lived, rebuilding the base of the ancient Kingdom of [[Dacia]].<ref>Rezachevici, Constantin, Mihai Viteazul et la "Dacie" de Sigismund Báthory en 1595, Ed. Argessis, 2003, 12, pp. 155–164</ref> The rule of Michael the Brave, with its break with Ottoman rule, tense relations with other European powers and the leadership of the three states, was considered in later periods as the precursor of a modern Romania, a thesis which was argued with noted intensity by [[Nicolae Bălcescu]].{{citation needed|date=July 2016}} Following Michael's downfall, Wallachia was occupied by the Polish–Moldavian army of [[Simion Movilă]] (see [[Moldavian Magnate Wars]]), who held the region until 1602, and was subject to [[Nogais|Nogai]] attacks in the same year.<ref>Giurescu, pp. 65, 68</ref>

[[File:Tara Romaneasca judete 1601-1718.svg|thumb|upright=1.25|Counties of Wallachia, 1601–1718]]

The last stage in the [[Growth of the Ottoman Empire]] brought increased pressures on Wallachia: political control was accompanied by Ottoman economical hegemony, the discarding of the capital in [[Târgoviște]] in favour of [[Bucharest]] (closer to the Ottoman border, and a rapidly growing trade center), the establishment of [[serfdom]] under Michael the Brave as a measure to increase [[Manorialism|manorial]] revenues, and the decrease in the importance of low-ranking boyars (threatened with extinction, they took part in the ''[[seimeni]]'' rebellion of 1655).<ref>Giurescu, pp. 68–69, 73–75</ref> Furthermore, the growing importance of appointment to high office in front of land ownership brought about an influx of [[Greeks in Romania|Greek]] and [[Levant]]ine families, a process already resented by locals during the rules of [[Radu Mihnea]] in the early 17th century.<ref>Giurescu, pp. 68–69, 78, 268</ref> [[Matei Basarab]], a boyar appointee, brought a long period of relative peace (1632–1654), with the noted exception of the 1653 [[Battle of Finta]], fought between Wallachians and the troops of Moldavian prince [[Vasile Lupu]]—ending in disaster for the latter, who was replaced with Prince Matei's favourite, [[Gheorghe Ștefan]], on the throne in [[Iași]]. A close alliance between Gheorghe Ștefan and Matei's successor [[Constantin Șerban]] was maintained by Transylvania's [[George II Rákóczi]], but their designs for independence from Ottoman rule were crushed by the troops of [[Mehmed IV]] in 1658–1659.<ref>Giurescu, p. 74</ref> The reigns of [[Gheorghe Ghica]] and [[Grigore I Ghica]], the sultan's favourites, signified attempts to prevent such incidents; however, they were also the onset of a violent clash between the [[Băleanu family|Băleanu]] and [[Cantacuzino family|Cantacuzino]] boyar families, which was to mark Wallachia's history until the 1680s.<ref>Giurescu, p. 78</ref> The Cantacuzinos, threatened by the alliance between the Băleanus and the [[Ghica family|Ghicas]], backed their own choice of princes ([[Antonie Vodă din Popești]] and [[George Ducas]])<ref>Giurescu, pp. 78–79</ref> before promoting themselves—with the ascension of [[Șerban Cantacuzino]] (1678–1688).

===Russo-Turkish Wars and the Phanariotes===
{{Main|Russo-Turkish wars|Phanariotes}}
[[File:Balkans XV-XVIIth century.png|thumb|[[Central Europe|Central]] and [[Southeastern Europe]] (including the [[Balkans|Balkan peninsula]]) from the 15th to the 18th century]]

Wallachia became a target for [[Habsburg monarchy|Habsburg]] incursions during the last stages of the [[Great Turkish War]] around 1690, when the ruler [[Constantin Brâncoveanu]] secretly and unsuccessfully negotiated an anti-Ottoman coalition. Brâncoveanu's reign (1688–1714), noted for its late [[Renaissance]] cultural achievements (see [[Brâncovenesc style]]), also coincided with the rise of [[Imperial Russia]] under Tsar [[Peter the Great]]—he was approached by the latter during the [[Russo-Turkish War (1710–11)|Russo-Turkish War of 1710–11]], and lost his throne and life sometime after sultan [[Ahmed III]] caught news of the negotiations.<ref>Djuvara, pp. 31, 157, 336</ref> Despite his denunciation of Brâncoveanu's policies, [[Ștefan Cantacuzino]] attached himself to Habsburg projects and opened the country to the armies of [[Prince Eugene of Savoy]]; he was himself deposed and executed in 1716.<ref>Djuvara, pp. 31, 336</ref>

Immediately following the deposition of Prince Ștefan, the Ottomans renounced the purely nominal [[Elective monarchy|elective]] system (which had by then already witnessed the decrease in importance of the [[Sfatul boieresc|Boyar Divan]] over the sultan's decision), and princes of the two [[Danubian Principalities]] were appointed from the [[Phanariotes]] of [[Constantinople]]. Inaugurated by [[Nicholas Mavrocordatos]] in Moldavia after [[Dimitrie Cantemir]], Phanariote rule was brought to Wallachia in 1715 by the very same ruler.<ref>Djuvara, pp. 31–32</ref> The tense relations between boyars and princes brought a decrease in the number of taxed people (as a [[Privilege (legal ethics)|privilege]] gained by the former), a subsequent increase in total taxes,<ref>Djuvara, pp. 67–70</ref> and the enlarged powers of a boyar circle in the Divan.<ref>Djuvara, p. 124</ref>

[[File:Welcoming the Prince of Saxa-Coburg by the Metropolitan and boyars, 1789.jpg|thumb|left|Welcoming of the [[Prince Josias of Saxe-Coburg-Saalfeld]] in Bucharest (1789)]]

In parallel, Wallachia became the battleground in a succession of wars between the Ottomans on one side and Russia or the Habsburg monarchy on the other. Mavrocordatos himself was deposed by a boyar rebellion, and arrested by Habsburg troops during the [[Austro-Turkish War of 1716–18]], as the Ottomans had to concede [[Oltenia]] to [[Charles VI, Holy Roman Emperor|Charles VI of Austria]] (the [[Treaty of Passarowitz]]).<ref>Djuvara, pp. 48, 92; Giurescu, pp. 94–96</ref> The region, organized as the [[Banat of Craiova]] and subject to an [[Enlightened absolutism|enlightened absolutist]] rule that soon disenchanted local boyars, was returned to Wallachia in 1739 (the [[Treaty of Belgrade]], upon the close of the [[Russo-Turkish War (1735–1739)|Austro-Russian–Turkish War (1735–39)]]). Prince [[Constantine Mavrocordatos]], who oversaw the new change in borders, was also responsible for the effective abolition of [[serfdom]] in 1746 (which put a stop to the exodus of peasants into [[Transylvania]]);<ref>Djuvara, pp. 48, 68, 91–92, 227–228, 254–256; Giurescu, p. 93</ref> during this period, the [[Ban (title)|ban]] of Oltenia moved his residence from [[Craiova]] to [[Bucharest]], signalling, alongside Mavrocordatos' order to merge his personal [[treasury]] with that of the country, a move towards [[Centralized government|centralism]].<ref>Djuvara, pp. 59, 71; Giurescu, p. 93</ref>

[[File:Calafat iulie 1790 1305816656828128.jpg|thumb|Clash between Austrian and Ottoman troops near [[Calafat]] during the [[Austro-Turkish War (1788–1791)|Austro-Turkish War]], 1790]]
In 1768, during the [[Russo-Turkish War (1768–74)|Fifth Russo-Turkish War]], Wallachia was placed under its first Russian occupation (helped along by the rebellion of [[Pârvu Cantacuzino]]).<ref>Djuvara, p. 285; Giurescu, pp. 98–99</ref> The [[Treaty of Küçük Kaynarca]] (1774) allowed Russia to intervene in favour of [[Eastern Orthodox Church|Eastern Orthodox]] Ottoman subjects, curtailing Ottoman pressures—including the decrease in sums owed as [[tribute]]<ref>Berza</ref>—and, in time, relatively increasing internal stability while opening Wallachia to more Russian interventions.<ref>Djuvara, p. 76</ref>

[[File:Rom1793-1812.png|thumb|The Principality of Wallachia, 1793–1812, highlighted in green]]

Habsburg troops, under [[Prince Josias of Coburg]], again entered the country during the [[Russo-Turkish War (1787–92)|Russo-Turkish-Austrian War]], deposing [[Nicholas Mavrogenes]] in 1789.<ref>Giurescu, pp. 105–106</ref> A period of crisis followed the Ottoman recovery: Oltenia was devastated by the expeditions of [[Osman Pazvantoğlu]], a powerful rebellious [[pasha]] whose raids even caused Prince [[Constantine Hangerli]] to lose his life on suspicion of treason (1799), and [[Alexander Mourousis]] to renounce his throne (1801).<ref>Djuvara, pp. 17–19, 282; Giurescu, p. 107</ref> In 1806, the [[Russo-Turkish War (1806–12)|Russo-Turkish War of 1806–12]] was partly instigated by the [[Sublime Porte|Porte]]'s deposition of [[Constantine Ypsilantis]] in Bucharest—in tune with the [[Napoleonic Wars]], it was instigated by the [[First French Empire|French Empire]], and also showed the impact of the Treaty of Küçük Kaynarca (with its permissive attitude towards Russian political influence in the [[Danubian Principalities]]); the war brought the invasion of [[Mikhail Andreyevich Miloradovich]].<ref>Djuvara, pp. 284–286; Giurescu, pp. 107–109</ref> After the [[Treaty of Bucharest (1812)|Peace of Bucharest]], the rule of [[Jean Georges Caradja]], although remembered for a major [[Caragea's plague|plague epidemic]], was notable for its cultural and industrial ventures.<ref>Djuvara, pp. 165, 168–169; Giurescu, p. 252</ref> During the period, Wallachia increased its strategic importance for most European states interested in supervising Russian expansion; consulates were opened in Bucharest, having an indirect but major impact on Wallachian economy through the protection they extended to ''[[Sudiți]]'' traders (who soon competed successfully against local guilds).<ref>Djuvara, pp. 184–187; Giurescu, pp. 114, 115, 288</ref>

===From Wallachia to Romania===
{{See also|Industrial development in the Principality of Wallachia}}

====Early 19th century====
The death of prince [[Alexandru Suțu|Alexander Soutzos]] in 1821, coinciding with the outbreak of the [[Greek War of Independence]], established a boyar [[Regent|regency]] which attempted to block the arrival of [[Scarlat Callimachi (hospodar)|Scarlat Callimachi]] to his throne in Bucharest. The parallel [[Wallachian uprising of 1821|uprising in Oltenia]], carried out by the [[Vladimirescu's Pandurs|Pandur]] leader [[Tudor Vladimirescu]], although aimed at overthrowing the ascendancy of [[Greeks in Romania|Greeks]],<ref>Djuvara, pp. 89, 299</ref> compromised with the Greek revolutionaries in the [[Filiki Eteria]] and allied itself with the regents,<ref>Djuvara, p. 297</ref> while seeking Russian support<ref>Giurescu, p. 115</ref> (see also: [[Rise of nationalism under the Ottoman Empire]]).

[[File:Obşteasca Adunare, 1837.jpg|thumb|left|The [[Sfatul boieresc|Legislative Assembly]] of Wallachia in 1837]]

On 21 March 1821 Vladimirescu entered Bucharest. For the following weeks, relations between him and his allies worsened, especially after he sought an agreement with the Ottomans;<ref>Djuvara, p. 298</ref> Eteria's leader [[Alexander Ypsilantis (1792–1828)|Alexander Ypsilantis]], who had established himself in Moldavia and, after May, in northern Wallachia, viewed the alliance as broken—he had Vladimirescu executed, and faced the Ottoman intervention without Pandur or Russian backing, suffering major defeats in Bucharest and [[Drăgășani]] (before retreating to [[Austrian Empire|Austrian]] custody in [[Transylvania]]).<ref>Djuvara, p. 301; Giurescu, pp. 116–117</ref> These violent events, which had seen the majority of Phanariotes siding with Ypsilantis, made [[Ottoman Dynasty|Sultan]] [[Mahmud II]] place the Principalities under its occupation (evicted by a request of several European powers),<ref>Djuvara, p. 307</ref> and sanction the end of Phanariote rules: in Wallachia, the first prince to be considered a local one after 1715 was [[Grigore IV Ghica]]. Although the new system was confirmed for the rest of Wallachia's existence as a state, Ghica's rule was abruptly ended by the devastating [[Russo-Turkish War, 1828–1829|Russo-Turkish War of 1828–1829]].<ref>Djuvara, p. 321</ref>

The 1829 [[Treaty of Adrianople (1829)|Treaty of Adrianople]] placed Wallachia and Moldavia under Russian military rule, without overturning Ottoman [[suzerainty]], awarding them the first common institutions and semblance of a [[constitution]] (see [[Regulamentul Organic]]). Wallachia was returned ownership of [[Brăila]], [[Giurgiu]] (both of which soon developed into major trading cities on the [[Danube]]), and [[Turnu Măgurele]].<ref>Giurescu, pp. 122, 127</ref> The treaty also allowed Moldavia and Wallachia to freely trade with countries other than the Ottoman Empire, which signalled substantial economic and urban growth, as well as improving the peasant situation.<ref>Djuvara, pp. 262, 324; Giurescu, pp. 127, 266</ref> Many of the provisions had been specified by the 1826 [[Akkerman Convention]] between Russia and the Ottomans, but it had never been fully implemented in the three-year interval.<ref>Djuvara, p. 323</ref> The duty of overseeing of the Principalities was left to Russian general [[Pavel Kiselyov]]; this period was marked by a series of major changes, including the reestablishment of a [[Wallachian Army]] (1831), a [[tax reform]] (which nonetheless confirmed [[tax exemption]]s for the [[Privilege (legal ethics)|privileged]]), as well as major urban works in Bucharest and other cities.<ref>Djuvara, pp. 323–324; Giurescu, pp. 122–127</ref> In 1834, Wallachia's throne was occupied by [[Alexandru II Ghica]]—a move in contradiction with the Adrianople treaty, as he had not been elected by the new [[Sfatul boieresc|Legislative Assembly]]; he was removed by the suzerains in 1842 and replaced with an elected prince, [[Gheorghe Bibescu]].<ref>Djuvara, p. 325</ref>

====1840s–1850s====
{{Main|Wallachian Revolution of 1848|Unification of Moldavia and Wallachia}}
[[Image:Tricolore1848.jpg|thumb|upright|right|1848 revolutionaries carrying an early version of the [[flag of Romania]]. The text on the flag can be translated as: "Justice, Brotherhood".]]

Opposition to Ghica's arbitrary and highly [[Conservatism|conservative]] rule, together with the rise of [[Liberalism in Romania|liberal]] and [[Radicalism (historical)|radical]] currents, was first felt with the protests voiced by Ion Câmpineanu (quickly repressed);<ref>Djuvara, p. 329; Giurescu, p. 134</ref> subsequently, it became increasingly [[Conspiracy (political)|conspiratorial]], and centered on those [[Secret society|secret societies]] created by young officers such as [[Nicolae Bălcescu]] and [[Mitică Filipescu]].<ref>Djuvara, p. 330; Giurescu, pp. 132–133</ref>
''Frăția'', a clandestine movement created in 1843, began planning a revolution to overthrow Bibescu and repeal ''Regulamentul Organic'' in 1848 (inspired by the [[Revolutions of 1848|European rebellions of the same year]]). Their pan-Wallachian ''[[coup d'état]]'' was initially successful only near [[Turnu Măgurele]], where crowds cheered the ''[[Islaz Proclamation]]'' (9 June); among others, the document called for [[Freedom (political)|political freedoms]], independence, [[land reform]], and the creation of a national guard.<ref>Djuvara, p. 331; Giurescu, pp. 133–134</ref> On 11–12 June the movement was successful in deposing Bibescu and establishing a Provisional Government,<ref name="ro">Djuvara, p. 331; Giurescu, pp. 136–137</ref> which made ''Dreptate, Frăție'' ("Justice, Brotherhood") the [[national motto]].<ref>{{cite web |url=https://ro.wikisource.org/wiki/Decretul_No._1_al_Guvernului_provisoriu_al_%C8%9A%C4%83rii-Rom%C3%A2nesci |title=Decretul No. 1 al Guvernului provisoriu al Țării-Românesci |access-date=27 March 2021 |archive-date=1 March 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200301205950/https://ro.wikisource.org/wiki/Decretul_No._1_al_Guvernului_provisoriu_al_%C8%9A%C4%83rii-Rom%C3%A2nesci |url-status=live }}</ref> Although sympathetic to the anti-Russian goals of the revolution, the Ottomans were pressured by Russia into repressing it: Ottoman troops entered Bucharest on 13 September.<ref name="ro" /> Russian and Turkish troops, present until 1851, brought [[Barbu Dimitrie Știrbei]] to the throne, during which interval most participants in the revolution were sent into exile.

[[File:Rom1856-1859.png|thumb|left|Wallachia (in green), after the Treaty of Paris (1856)]]

Briefly under renewed Russian occupation during the [[Crimean War]], Wallachia and Moldavia were given a new status with a neutral [[Austrian Empire|Austrian]] administration (1854–1856) and the [[Treaty of Paris (1856)|Treaty of Paris]]: a tutelage shared by Ottomans and a Congress of Great Powers (Britain, France, the [[Kingdom of Piedmont-Sardinia]], the Austrian Empire, Prussia, and, albeit never again fully, Russia), with a ''[[kaymakam]]''-led internal administration. The emerging movement for a union of the [[Danubian Principalities]] (a demand first voiced in 1848, and a cause cemented by the return of revolutionary exiles) was advocated by the French and their Sardinian allies, supported by Russia and Prussia, but was rejected or suspicioned by all other overseers.<ref>Giurescu, pp. 139–141</ref>

[[Image:Divanul Ad-Hoc, 1857.jpg|thumb|Wallachia's ''[[Ad hoc Divan]]'' in 1857]]

After an intense campaign, a formal union was ultimately granted: nevertheless, elections for the ''[[Ad hoc Divan]]s'' of 1859 profited from a legal ambiguity (the text of the final agreement specified two thrones, but did not prevent any single person from simultaneously taking part in and winning elections in both Bucharest and [[Iași]]). [[Alexander John Cuza]], who ran for the unionist ''[[Partida Națională]]'', won the elections in Moldavia on 5 January; Wallachia, which was expected by the unionists to carry the same vote, returned a majority of anti-unionists to its ''divan''.<ref name="Giurescu, p. 142">Giurescu, p. 142</ref>

Those elected changed their allegiance after a mass protest of Bucharest crowds,<ref name="Giurescu, p. 142"/> and Cuza was voted prince of Wallachia on 5 February (24 January [[Adoption of the Gregorian calendar#Adoption in Eastern Europe|Old Style]]), consequently confirmed as ''[[Domnitor]]'' of the [[United Principalities|United Principalities of Moldavia and Wallachia]] (''of Romania'' from 1862) and [[Unification of Moldavia and Wallachia|effectively uniting both principalities]]. Internationally recognized only for the duration of his reign, the union was irreversible after the ascension of [[Carol I of Romania|Carol I]] in 1866 (coinciding with the [[Austro-Prussian War]], it came at a time when Austria, the main opponent of the decision, was not in a position to intervene).