Editing Virtue (section)

==History==

===Ancient Egypt===
[[File:Maat.svg|thumb|upright|[[Maat]], to [[ancient Egypt]]ians, personified the virtue of [[truth]] and justice. Her feather represents truth.<ref>{{cite book|last=Karenga|first=Maulana|year=2004|publisher=Routledge|title=Maat, the Moral Ideal in Ancient Egypt: A study in classical African ethics|isbn=9780415947534}}</ref>]]
[[Maat]] (or Ma'at) was the [[ancient Egypt]]ian goddess of [[truth]], [[balance (metaphysics)|balance]], [[Natural order (philosophy)|order]], [[law]], [[morality]], and [[justice]]. The word {{lang|egy|maat}} was also used to refer to these concepts. Maat was also portrayed as regulating the stars, seasons, and the actions of both mortals and the deities. The deities set the order of the universe from chaos at the moment of creation. Her (ideological) counterpart was [[Isfet (Egyptian mythology)|Isfet]], who symbolized [[chaos (mythology)|chaos]], lies, and injustice.<ref>{{multiref2
|1={{cite book| first = Norman Rufus Colin|last= Cohn| title = Cosmos, Chaos and the World to Come: The Ancient Roots of Apocalyptic Faith| year = 1993|publisher= Yale University Press| isbn = 978-0-300-05598-6| url-access = registration| url = https://archive.org/details/cosmoschaosworld00cohn}}
|2={{cite book | last=Assmann | first=Jan | author-link=Jan Assmann| translator-last=Livingstone | translator-first=Rodney | title=Religion and Cultural Memory | publisher=Stanford University Press | date=2006 | isbn=0-8047-4523-4|url=https://archive.org/details/religioncultural0000assm|url-access=registration}}
}}</ref>

===Greco-Roman antiquity===
[[File:Arete - Areté- Éfeso.jpg|thumb|upright|[[Personification]] of virtue ([[wikt:ἀρετή|Ἀρετή]]) in [[Celsus Library]] in [[Ephesos]], [[Turkey]]]]
{{See also|Arete|Aretology|Hospitium|Paideia}}

===Platonic virtue===
The four classic [[cardinal virtues]] are:<ref>{{cite journal|first=Stanley B.|last=Cunningham|title=Review of ''Virtues and Vices and Other Essays in Moral Philosophy''|journal=Dialogue|volume=21|number=1|year=1982|pages=133–37|doi=10.1017/S001221730001742X |s2cid=170202878 }}</ref>
* [[Prudence]] ({{lang|grc|φρόνησις}}, {{transliteration|grc|phrónēsis}}; {{langx|la|prudentia}}; also [[Wisdom]], {{transliteration|grc|[[Sophia (wisdom)|Sophia]]}}, {{lang|la|sapientia}}), the ability to discern the appropriate course of action to be taken in a given situation at the appropriate time.
* [[Courage|Fortitude]] ({{lang|grc|ἀνδρεία}}, {{transliteration|grc|andreía}}; {{langx|la|fortitudo}}): also termed courage, forbearance, strength, endurance, and the ability to confront fear, uncertainty, and intimidation.
* [[Temperance (virtue)|Temperance]] ({{lang|grc|σωφροσύνη}}, {{transliteration|grc|sōphrosýnē}}; {{langx|la|temperantia}}): also known as restraint, the practice of self-control, abstention, discretion, and moderation tempering the [[appetition]]. Plato considered {{transliteration|grc|sōphrosynē}}, which may also be translated as sound-mindedness, to be the most important virtue.
* [[Justice (virtue)|Justice]] ({{lang|grc|δικαιοσύνη}}, {{transliteration|grc|dikaiosýnē}}; {{langx|la|iustitia}}): also considered as fairness;<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.theplatonist.com/cardinal_virtues.htm|title=Cardinal Virtues of Plato, Augustine and Confucius|work=theplatonist.com|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160304074259/http://www.theplatonist.com/cardinal_virtues.htm|archive-date=2016-03-04}}</ref> the Greek word also having the meaning of righteousness.

This enumeration is traced to Greek philosophy and was listed by [[Plato]] who also added [[piety]] ({{lang|grc|ὁσιότης}}, {{transliteration|grc|hosiotēs}}) and replaced prudence with [[wisdom]].<ref>{{cite book|last=Den Uyl|first=D.J.|year=1991|title=The Virtue of Prudence|publisher=Peter Lang|series=Studies in Moral Philosophy|volume=5|isbn=9780820415048|lccn=90025008}}</ref> Some scholars consider either of the above four virtue combinations as mutually reducible and therefore not cardinal.<ref>{{cite journal|last=Carr|first=D.|year=1988|title=The cardinal virtues and Plato's moral psychology|journal=The Philosophical Quarterly|volume=38|number=151|pages=186–200|doi=10.2307/2219923 |jstor=2219923 }}</ref>

It is unclear whether Plato subscribed to a unified view of virtues.<ref>{{cite journal|first=Gregory|last=Vlastos|title=The Unity of the Virtues in the ''Protagoras''|journal=The Review of Metaphysics|volume=25|number=3|date=March 1972|pages=415–458|jstor=20126056}}</ref> In ''[[Protagoras (dialogue)|Protagoras]]'' and ''[[Meno]]'' he states that the separate virtues cannot exist independently and offers as evidence the contradictions of acting with wisdom, yet in an unjust way; or acting with bravery (fortitude), yet without wisdom. The narrative in the ''Meno'' commences with [[Meno (general)|the eponymous character]] asking about virtue, but when [[Socrates]] asks him "What is virtue?", he replies with a list of virtues displayed in different ways.<ref>Plato, ''Meno'', 71e-72b</ref>

==== Aristotelian virtue ====
{{see also|Virtue ethics#Lists of virtues}}
In his ''[[Nicomachean Ethics]]'', [[Aristotle]] defined a virtue as a point between a deficiency and an excess of a trait.<ref name=NE26>{{cite book |author=[[Aristotle]] |title=[[Nicomachean Ethics]] |at=[https://standardebooks.org/ebooks/aristotle/nicomachean-ethics/f-h-peters/text/book-2#chapter-2-1-6 II.6] }}</ref> The point of greatest virtue lies not in the exact middle, but at a [[Golden mean (philosophy)|golden mean]] sometimes closer to one extreme than the other. This golden mean obtains at a desirable middle between excess and deficiency. For Aristotle, the desirableness of the trait at the golden mean—that which makes it a virtue—consists in its disposition to be "chosen under the proper guidance of reason."<ref>{{cite book |last=Audi |first=Robert |author-link= |date=2015 |title=The Cambridge Dictionary of Philosophy |url= |location= |publisher=Cambridge University Press |page=1114 |isbn=9781107015050}}</ref> That is, in its disposition to foster human flourishing, a state defined with respect to human nature conceived [[teleology|teleologically]], or as an end to be realized instead of a descriptive fact to be understood.

However, the virtuous action is not simply the "mean" (mathematically speaking) between two opposite extremes. As Aristotle says in the ''Nicomachean Ethics'': "at the right times, and on the right occasions, and towards the right persons, and with the right object, and in the right fashion, is the mean course and the best course, and these are characteristics of virtue."<ref name=NE26 /> For example, generosity is a virtue between the two extremes of miserliness and being profligate. Further examples include courage between cowardice and foolhardiness and confidence between [[self-deprecation]] and conceit. In Aristotle's sense, a virtue is an excellence at being human.

===== Intellectual virtues =====
Aristotle also identifies the [[Nicomachean_Ethics#Book_VI:_Intellectual_virtues|"intellectual virtues"]] of knowledge, art, practical judgement, intuition, and wisdom.

====Roman virtues====
The term ''virtue'' itself is derived from the Latin "{{lang|la|[[Virtus (virtue)|virtus]]}}" (the personification of which was the deity [[Virtus (deity)|Virtus]]), and had connotations of "[[manliness]]", "[[honour]]", worthiness of deferential respect, and civic duty as both [[Cincinnatus|citizen and soldier]]. This virtue was but one of many virtues which Romans of good character were expected to exemplify and pass on through the generations, as part of the {{lang|la|[[mos maiorum]]}}; ancestral traditions which defined [[Romanitas|"Roman-ness"]]. Romans distinguished between the spheres of private and public life, and thus, virtues were also divided between those considered to be in the realm of private family life (as lived and taught by the [[paterfamilias]]) and those expected of an upstanding Roman [[Citizenship#Roman ideas|citizen]].

Most Roman concepts of virtue were also personified as a [[numina|numinous deity]]. The primary Roman virtues,<ref>{{Cite web |title=Roman virtues |url=http://www.novaroma.org/nr/Roman_virtues |access-date=2022-05-04 |website=Nova Roma}}</ref>{{better source needed|date=July 2023}} both public and private, were:
{| class="wikitable"
! Latin
! English
! Description
|-
|{{lang|la|Abundantia}}
|Abundance or Prosperity
|The ideal of there being enough food and prosperity for all segments of society, personified by Abundantia. A public virtue.
|-
|{{lang|la|[[Auctoritas]]}} 
|Spiritual Authority
|The sense of one's social standing, built up through experience, Pietas, and Industria. This was considered to be essential for a magistrate's ability to enforce law and order.
|-
|{{lang|la|Comitas}}
|Humour
|Ease of manner, courtesy, openness, and friendliness.
|-
|{{lang|la|[[Courage|Constantia]]}}
|Perseverance or Courage
|Military stamina, as well as general mental and physical endurance in the face of hardship.
|-
|{{lang|la|Clementia}}
|Mercy
|Mildness and gentleness, and the ability to set aside previous transgressions, personified by Clementia.
|-
|{{lang|la|Dignitas}}
|Dignity
|A sense of self-worth, personal self-respect, and self-esteem.
|-
|{{lang|la|Disciplina}}
|Discipline
|Considered essential to military excellence; also connotes adherence to the legal system, and upholding the duties of citizenship, personified by Disciplina.
|-
|{{lang|la|Fides}}
|Good Faith
|Mutual trust and reciprocal dealings in both government and commerce (public affairs), a breach meant legal and religious consequences, personified by Fides.
|-
|{{lang|la|Firmitas}}
|Tenacity
|Strength of mind, and the ability to stick to one's purpose at hand without wavering.
|-
|{{lang|la|[[Frugality|Frugalitas]]}}
|Frugality
|Economy and simplicity in lifestyle.
|-
|{{lang|la|[[Gravitas]]}}
|Gravity
|A sense of the importance of the matter at hand; responsibility, and being earnest.
|-
|{{lang|la|Honestas}} 
|Respectibility
|The image and honor that one presents as a respectable member of society.
|-
|{{lang|la|[[Humanitas]]}}
|Humanity
|Refinement, civilization, learning, and generally being cultured.
|-
|{{lang|la|[[Diligence|Industria]]}} 
|Industriousness or Diligence
|Hard work.
|-
|{{lang|la|Innocencia}}
|Selflessness
|Giving without anticipating recognition or personal gain. Central to this concept was an unwavering commitment to incorruptibility, avoiding the misuse of public office for personal benefit, as that was considered a grave affront to Roman values, detrimental to both individual and communal well-being.
|-
|{{lang|la|[[Joy|Laetitia]]}}
|Joy or Gladness
|The celebration of thanksgiving, often of the resolution of crisis, a public virtue.
|-
|{{lang|la|[[Nobilitas]]}} 
|Nobility
|Man of fine appearance, deserving of honor, highly esteemed social rank, and, or, nobility of birth, a public virtue.
|-
|{{lang|la|Justitia}}
|Justice
|Sense of moral worth to an action; personified by the goddess Iustitia, the Roman counterpart to the Greek Themis.
|-
|{{lang|la|Pietas}}
|Dutifulness
|More than religious piety; a respect for the natural order: socially, politically, and religiously. Includes ideas of patriotism, fulfillment of pious obligation to the gods, and honoring other human beings, especially in terms of the [[Patronage in ancient Rome|patron and client relationship]] considered essential to an orderly society.
|-
|{{lang|la|Prudentia}} 
|Prudence
|Foresight, wisdom, and personal discretion.
|-
|{{lang|la|[[Salus|Salubritas]]}} 
|Wholesomeness
|General health and cleanliness, personified in the deity Salus.
|-
|{{lang|la|Severitas}} 
|Sternness
|Self-control, considered to be tied directly to the virtue of gravitas.
|-
|{{lang|la|Veritas}} 
|Truthfulness
|Honesty in dealing with others, personified by the goddess Veritas. Veritas, being the mother of Virtus, was considered the root of all virtue; a person living an honest life was bound to be virtuous.
|-
|{{lang|la|[[Virtus (virtue)|Virtus]]}} 
|Manliness
|Valor, excellence, courage, character, and worth. {{lang|la|Vir}} is Latin for "man".
|}

===Ancient India===
[[File:இலண்டன் திருவள்ளுவர்.JPG|thumb|right|Valluvar (Statue at SOAS, [[University of London]]).]]
While religious scriptures generally consider {{transliteration|sa|[[dharma]]}} or {{transliteration|ta|aṟam}} (the [[Tamil language|Tamil]] term for virtue) as a divine virtue, [[Valluvar]] describes it as a way of life rather than any spiritual observance, a way of harmonious living that leads to universal happiness.<ref name="Sanjeevi_SeminarPapers">{{cite book |author= N. Sanjeevi |title= First All India Tirukkural Seminar Papers |year= 1973 |edition=2nd |publisher=University of Madras | location=Chennai |pages= xxiii–xxvii}}</ref> For this reason, Valluvar keeps {{transliteration|ta|aṟam}} as the cornerstone throughout the writing of the [[Tirukkural|Kural literature]].<ref name="UMI_WhyNationalBook?">{{cite book
 | last = N. Velusamy and Moses Michael Faraday (Eds.)
 | title = Why Should Thirukkural Be Declared the National Book of India?
 | publisher = Unique Media Integrators
 | edition = First
 | date = February 2017
 | location = Chennai
 | pages = 55
 | language = ta, en
 | isbn = 978-93-85471-70-4
 }}</ref> Valluvar considered [[justice]] as a facet or product of {{transliteration|ta|aṟam}}.<ref name="Sanjeevi_SeminarPapers"/> While many before his time opined that justice cannot be defined and that it was a divine mystery, Valluvar suggested that a divine origin is not required to define the concept of justice.<ref name="Sanjeevi_SeminarPapers"/> In the words of [[V. R. Nedunchezhiyan]], justice according to Valluvar "dwells in the minds of those who have knowledge of the standard of right and wrong; so too deceit dwells in the minds which breed fraud."<ref name="Sanjeevi_SeminarPapers"/>

===Chivalric virtues in medieval Europe===
{{Main|Chivalry}}
In the {{CE|8th century}}, upon the occasion of his coronation as [[Holy Roman Emperor]], [[Charlemagne]] published a list of [[knightly virtues]]:
* Love God
* Love your neighbor
* Give alms to the poor
* Entertain strangers
* Visit the sick
* Be merciful to prisoners
* Do ill to no man, nor consent unto such
* Forgive as ye hope to be forgiven
* Redeem the captive
* Help the oppressed
* Defend the cause of the widow and orphan
* Render righteous judgement
* Do not consent to any wrong
* Persevere not in wrath
* Shun excess in eating and drinking
* Be humble and kind
* Serve your liege lord faithfully
* Do not steal
* Do not perjure yourself, nor let others do so
* Envy, hatred, and violence separate men from the Kingdom of God
* Defend the Church and promote her cause.<ref>{{cite web |title=The origins of Chivalry |url=http://www.baronage.co.uk/chivalry/chival1a.html |website=Baronage |access-date=17 November 2018|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220305035824/http://www.baronage.co.uk/chivalry/chival1a.html|archive-date=2022-03-05}}</ref>{{better source needed|reason=website, no references, no author|date=July 2023}}