Editing Vinland (section)

==The Vinland Sagas==
[[File:Eiríks the Red saga.jpg|thumb|The beginning of the ''[[Saga of Erik the Red]]'' (13th-century manuscript)]]

The main sources of information about the Norse voyages to Vinland are two [[Sagas of Icelanders|Icelandic Sagas]]: the ''[[Saga of Erik the Red]]'' and the ''[[Saga of the Greenlanders]]'', which are known collectively as the Vinland Sagas. These stories were preserved by oral tradition until they were written down some 250 years after the events they describe. The existence of two versions of the story shows some of the challenges of using traditional sources for history, because they share a large number of story elements but use them in different ways. A possible example is the reference to two different men named Bjarni who are blown off course. A brief summary of the plots of the two sagas, given at the end of this article, shows other examples.

The sagas report that a considerable number of Vikings were in parties that visited Vinland. [[Thorfinn Karlsefni]]'s crew consisted of 140 or 160 people according to the [[Saga of Erik the Red]], 60 according to the [[Saga of the Greenlanders]]. Still according to the latter, [[Leif Ericson]] led a company of 35, [[Thorvald Eiriksson]] a company of 30, and [[Helgi and Finnbogi]] had 30 crew members.<ref name="jstor.org">[https://www.jstor.org/stable/2911893 Vinland and Ultima Thule. John Th. Honti. Modern Language Notes Vol. 54, No. 3 (Mar., 1939), pp. 159-172] ''Jstor.org''</ref>

According to the Saga of Erik the Red, [[Þorfinnr "Karlsefni" Þórðarson]] and a company of 160 men, going south from Greenland traversed an open stretch of sea, found [[Helluland]], another stretch of sea, [[Markland]], another stretch of sea, the headland of ''Kjalarnes'', the [[Wonderstrands]], [[Straumfjörð]] and at last a place called ''Hóp'', a bountiful place where no snow fell during winter. However, after several years away from Greenland, they chose to turn back to their homes when they realized that they would otherwise face an indefinite conflict with the natives.

This saga references the place-name Vinland in four ways. First, it is identified as the land found by [[Leif Erikson]]. Karlsefni and his men subsequently find "vín-ber" near the Wonderstrands. Later, the tale locates Vinland to the south of Markland, with the headland of ''Kjalarnes'' at its northern extreme. However, it also mentions that while at Straumfjord, some of the explorers wished to go in search for Vinland west of ''Kjalarnes''.

===''Saga of the Greenlanders''===
{{Main|Saga of the Greenlanders}}
[[File:Hvalsey Church.jpg|thumb|[[Church of Hvalsey]], one of the best preserved remnants from the Norse settlement in Greenland.]]
[[File:Simiutaq.jpg|thumb|[[Simiutaq Island]], [[Greenland]], as seen from the [[Davis Strait]]. This has been suggested to be a suitable starting point for a crossing to Canada<ref name="Jónas Kristjánsson 2012 pp. 145-177"/>]]
[[File:Flying over Baffin Island.jpg|thumb|Baffin Island, possible location of Helluland]]
[[File:Leif Erikson 6c 1968 issue.JPG|thumb|upright|Leif Erikson U.S. [[commemorative stamp]], issued 1968]]

In [[Grœnlendinga saga|''Grænlendinga saga'']] or the 'Saga of the Greenlanders', [[Bjarni Herjólfsson]] accidentally discovered the new land when traveling from Norway to visit his father, in the second year of Erik the Red's Greenland settlement (about 986&nbsp;CE). When he managed to reach Greenland, making land at [[Herjolfsnes (Norse Greenland)|Herjolfsness]], the site of his father's farm, he remained there for the rest of his father's life and didn't return to Norway until about 1000&nbsp;CE. There, he told his overlord (the Earl, also named Erik) about the new land and was criticized for his long delay in reporting this. On his return to Greenland he retold the story and inspired Leif Eriksson to organize an expedition, which retraced in reverse the route Bjarni had followed, past a land of flat stones ([[Helluland]]) and a land of forests ([[Markland]]). After having sailed another two days across open sea, the expedition found a headland with an island just off the shore, with a nearby pool, accessible to ships at high tide, in an area where the sea was shallow with sandbanks. Here the explorers landed and established a base which can plausibly be matched to L'Anse aux Meadows; except that the winter was described as mild, not freezing. One day an old family servant, [[Tyrker]], went missing and was found mumbling to himself. He eventually explained that he found grapes/currants. In the spring, Leif returned to Greenland with a shipload of timber, towing a boatload of grapes/currants. On the way home, he spotted another ship aground on the rocks, rescued the crew and later salvaged the cargo. A second expedition, one ship of about 40 men led by Leif's brother Thorvald, sets out in the autumn after Leif's return and stayed over three winters at the new base ([[Leifsbudir|''Leifsbúðir'']] (-budir), meaning Leif's temporary shelters), exploring the west coast of the new land during the first summer, and the east coast during the second, running aground and losing the ship's [[keel]] on a headland they christen Keel Point (''Kjalarnes''). Further south, at a point where Thorvald wanted to establish a settlement, the [[Norse settlements in Greenland|Greenlanders]] encountered some of the local inhabitants (''[[Skræling]]jar'') and killed them, following which they were attacked by a large force in hide boats, and Thorvald died from an arrow-wound. After the exploration party returned to base, the Greenlanders decided to return home the following spring.

Thorstein, Leif's brother, married Gudrid, widow of the captain rescued by Leif, then led a third expedition to bring home Thorvald's body, but drifted off course and spent the whole summer sailing the Atlantic. Spending the winter as a guest at a farm on Greenland with Gudrid, Thorstein died of disease, reviving just long enough to make a prophecy about her future as a Christian. The next winter, Gudrid married a visiting Icelander named Thorfinn Karlsefni, who agreed to undertake a major expedition to Vinland, taking livestock. On arrival, they soon found a beached whale which sustained them until spring. In the summer, they were visited by some of the local inhabitants who were scared by the Greenlanders' bull, but happy to trade goods for milk and other products. In autumn, Gudrid gave birth to a son, Snorri. Shortly after this, one of the local people tried to take a weapon and was killed. The explorers were then attacked in force, but managed to survive with only minor casualties by retreating to a well-chosen defensive position, a short distance from their base. One of the local people picked up an iron axe, tried it, and threw it away.

The explorers returned to Greenland in summer with a cargo of grapes/currants and hides. Shortly thereafter, a ship captained by two Icelanders arrived in Greenland, and [[Freydís Eiríksdóttir|Freydis]], daughter of Eric the Red, persuaded them to join her in an expedition to Vinland. When they arrived at Vinland, the brothers stored their belongings in Leif Eriksson's houses, which angered Freydis and she banished them. She then visited them during the winter and asked for their ship, claiming that she wanted to go back to Greenland, which the brothers happily agreed to. Freydis went back and told her husband the exact opposite, which led to the killing, at Freydis' order, of all the Icelanders, including five women, as they lay sleeping. In the spring, the Greenlanders returned home with a good cargo, but Leif found out the truth about the Icelanders. That was the last Vinland expedition recorded in the saga.

===''Saga of Erik the Red''===
{{Main|Saga of Erik the Red}}
[[File:Erikr-eng.png|thumb|upright=1.3|Graphical description of the different sailing routes to [[Greenland]], Vinland ([[Newfoundland]]), [[Helluland]] ([[Baffin Island]]), and [[Markland]] ([[Labrador]]) travelled by different Viking characters in the [[Sagas of Icelanders|Icelandic Sagas]], primarily the ''Saga of Erik the Red'' and ''[[Saga of the Greenlanders]]''.]]

In the other version of the story, ''Eiríks saga rauða'' or the ''[[Saga of Erik the Red]]'', Leif Ericsson accidentally discovered the new land when traveling from Norway back to Greenland after a visit to his overlord, King Olaf Tryggvason, who commissioned him to spread Christianity in the colony. Returning to Greenland with samples of grapes/currants, wheat and timber, he rescued the survivors from a wrecked ship and gained a reputation for good luck; his religious mission was a swift success. The next spring, Thorstein, Leif's brother, led an expedition to the new land, but drifted off course and spent the whole summer sailing the Atlantic. On his return, he met and married Gudrid, one of the survivors from a ship which made land at Herjolfsnes after a difficult voyage from Iceland. Spending the winter as a guest at a farm on Greenland with Gudrid, Thorstein died of disease, reviving just long enough to make a prophecy about her future as a far-traveling Christian. The next winter, Gudrid married a visiting Icelander named Thorfinn Karlsefni, who, with his business partner Snorri Thorbrandsson, agreed to undertake a major expedition to the new land, taking livestock with them. Also contributing ships for this expedition were another pair of visiting Icelanders, Bjarni Grimolfsson and Thorhall Gamlason, and Leif's brother and sister Thorvald and Freydis, with her husband Thorvard. Sailing past landscapes of flat stones ([[Helluland]]) and forests ([[Markland]]) they rounded a cape where they saw the keel of a boat (Kjalarnes), then continued past some extraordinarily long beaches ([[Wonderstrands|''Furðustrandir'']]) before they landed and sent out two runners to explore inland. After three days, the pair returned with samples of grapes/currants and wheat. After they sailed a little farther, the expedition landed at an inlet next to an area of strong currents ([[Straumfjörð]]), with an island just off shore (Straumsey), and they made camp. The winter months were harsh, and food was in short supply. One day an old family servant, Thorhall the Hunter (who had not become Christian), went missing and was found mumbling to himself. Shortly afterwards, a beached whale was found, which Thorhall claimed had been provided in answer to his praise of the pagan gods. The explorers found that eating it made them ill, so they prayed to the Christian God, and shortly afterwards the weather improved.

When spring arrived, Thorhall Gamlason, the Icelander, wanted to sail north around Kjalarnes to seek Vinland, while Thorfinn Karlsefni preferred to sail southward down the east coast. Thorhall took only nine men, and his vessel is swept out into the ocean by contrary winds; he and his crew never returned. Thorfinn and Snorri, with Freydis (plus possibly Bjarni), sailed down the east coast with 40 men or more and established a settlement on the shore of a seaside lake, protected by barrier islands and connected to the open ocean by a river which was navigable by ships only at high tide. The settlement was known as ''Hóp'', and the land abounded with grapes/currants and wheat. The teller of this saga was uncertain whether the explorers remained here over the next winter (said to be very mild) or for only a few weeks of summer. One morning they saw nine hide boats; the local people (''Skrælings'') examined the Norse ships and departed in peace. Later a much larger flotilla of boats arrived, and trade commenced (Karlsefni forbade the sale of weapons). One day, the local traders were frightened by the sudden arrival of the Greenlanders' bull, and they stayed away for three weeks. They then attacked in force, but the explorers managed to survive with only minor casualties, by retreating inland to a defensive position, a short distance from their camp. Pregnancy slowed Freydis down, so she picked up the sword of a fallen companion and brandished it against her bare breast, scaring the attackers into withdrawal. One of the local people picked up an iron axe, tried using it, but threw it away. The explorers subsequently abandoned the southern camp and sailed back to Straumsfjord, killing five natives they encountered on the way, lying asleep in hide sacks.

Karlsefni, accompanied by Thorvald Eriksson and others, sailed around Kjalarnes and then south, keeping land on their left side, hoping to find Thorhall. After sailing for a long time, while moored on the south side of a west-flowing river, they were shot at by a [[Monopod (creature)|one-footed man]], and Thorvald died from an arrow-wound. Once they reached Markland, the men encountered five natives, of whom they kidnapped two boys, baptizing them and teaching them their own language.<ref>Jane Smiley, “The Sagas of the Greenlanders and The Saga of Eirik the Red” in The Sagas of the Icelanders (New York: Penguin, 2005), 672.</ref> The explorers returned to Straumsfjord, but disagreements during the following winter led to the abandonment of the venture. On the way home, the ship of Bjarni the Icelander was swept into the Sea of Worms (Maðkasjár in Skálholtsbók, Maðksjár in Hauksbók) by contrary winds. The marine worms destroyed the hull, and only those who escaped in the ship's worm-proofed boat survived. This was the last Vinland expedition recorded in the saga.<ref>based on translations by Keneva Kunz, with table of story element comparisons, in "The Sagas of Icelanders", London, Allen Lane (2000) {{ISBN|0-7139-9356-1}}</ref>