Editing Universal access to education (section)

== Access to education in racial minorities ==
In the context of post-secondary education, there exists a lack of access to education that disproportionately affects minority students. The number of students who pursue higher education heavily relies on the number of students that graduate from high school. Since the late 1970s, the rate in which young adults between the ages of 25 and 29 years old have graduated from high school and received a diploma or the equivalent has stagnated between 85 and 88 percent.<ref name=":1">Planty, M., Provasnik, S., Hussar, W., Snyder, T. (2007). ''The Condition of Education 2007'' NCES 2007-064 (pp. 58-59). Washington, DC: U.S. Government Printing Office. https://nces.ed.gov/pubs2007/2007064.pdf</ref> In terms of race, there is a statistical gap between minority groups’ rates of graduation and white students’ rates of graduation. In 2006, the rate of high school graduation was 93 percent, for Black students was 86 percent, and for Hispanic students was 63 percent.<ref name=":1">Planty, M., Provasnik, S., Hussar, W., Snyder, T. (2007). ''The Condition of Education 2007'' NCES 2007-064 (pp. 58-59). Washington, DC: U.S. Government Printing Office. https://nces.ed.gov/pubs2007/2007064.pdf</ref>

Although minority college attendance has increased throughout the years, the disparity has remained. In terms of completing high school, in 2010, white (47 percent) and Asian (66 percent) students were more likely to have graduated from high school. In comparison, only 39 percent of Pacific Islanders, 37 percent of Black students, 31 percent of Hispanics, and 28 percent of Native Americans completed high school.<ref name=":2">Ross, T., Kena, G., Rathbun, A., KewalRamani, A., Zhang, J., Kristapovich, P., & Manning, E. (2012). Postsecondary Education. ''Higher Education: Gaps in Access and Persistence Study'' (NCES 2012-046). (pp. 160-190). U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics. Washington, DC: Government Printing Office.                     https://nces.ed.gov/pubs2012/2012046.pdf</ref> This transfers over to the numbers of students in minority groups who have enrolled in college, even though these students have great aspirations to attend college.<ref name=":3">Roderick, M., Nagaoka, J., & Coca, V. (2009) College Readiness for All: The Challenge for Urban High Schools. ''The Future of Children, 19''(1), pp. 185-204) https://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&AuthType=ip,sso&db=ehh&AN=43308224&scope=site&custid=s8448101</ref> When examining enrollment numbers, Black (23 percent) and Hispanic (19 percent) students enrolled into and attended 2-year and 4-year universities at lower rates, compared to white (45 percent), Asian (53 percent), and multiracial (37 percent) students.<ref name=":2">Ross, T., Kena, G., Rathbun, A., KewalRamani, A., Zhang, J., Kristapovich, P., & Manning, E. (2012). Postsecondary Education. ''Higher Education: Gaps in Access and Persistence Study'' (NCES 2012-046). (pp. 160-190). U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics. Washington, DC: Government Printing Office.                     https://nces.ed.gov/pubs2012/2012046.pdf</ref> However, Black and Hispanic students are more likely to enroll into 2-year universities.<ref name=":3">Roderick, M., Nagaoka, J., & Coca, V. (2009) College Readiness for All: The Challenge for Urban High Schools. ''The Future of Children, 19''(1), pp. 185-204) https://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&AuthType=ip,sso&db=ehh&AN=43308224&scope=site&custid=s8448101</ref>

=== Causes of disparities ===
The disparity in access to higher education is primarily due to a difference in college readiness these students experience. College readiness refers to how prepared for higher education students are. Although there are several ways to define it, college readiness involves measuring four aspects of student performance: basic skills, knowledge of certain content areas, grade point averages (GPA), and college knowledge, also referred to as social capital.<ref name=":3">Roderick, M., Nagaoka, J., & Coca, V. (2009) College Readiness for All: The Challenge for Urban High Schools. ''The Future of Children, 19''(1), pp. 185-204) https://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&AuthType=ip,sso&db=ehh&AN=43308224&scope=site&custid=s8448101</ref> Basic skills include being able to read, write and think analytically about situations; content areas that students should have knowledge of include English and mathematics. Both aspects are crucial to college readiness because of their real-world application, and if a student is not proficient in these two areas, they are less likely to even pursue university. However, for many minority students they do not meet the basic requirements for colleges and universities.

In terms of GPA and college knowledge, racial disparities exist. Regarding GPA, the gap in school performance between minority and white students is significant.<ref name=":3">Roderick, M., Nagaoka, J., & Coca, V. (2009) College Readiness for All: The Challenge for Urban High Schools. ''The Future of Children, 19''(1), pp. 185-204) https://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&AuthType=ip,sso&db=ehh&AN=43308224&scope=site&custid=s8448101</ref> This gap can influence minority students’ aspirations towards attending college, which affects minority enrollment rates. In terms of college knowledge, many minority students do not have access to social capital because of the lack of resources catered to them to ensure their success. There also is a lack of knowledge among minority students about what resources are available, especially because many of them are first-generation students.<ref name=":4">Jackson, N. (1988) Minority access to higher education. ''The Journal of College Admissions''. 53-62. https://files.eric.ed.gov/fulltext/EJ992740.pdf   </ref>

=== Work towards better access ===
Although racial disparities in college readiness exist, there are several ways to counteract them. One way involves the way that students’ communities support them. Their counselors, teachers, and parents must work with them to ensure that their school records, academic records, and such are accurately conveyed to colleges and universities.<ref name=":4">Jackson, N. (1988) Minority access to higher education. ''The Journal of College Admissions''. 53-62. https://files.eric.ed.gov/fulltext/EJ992740.pdf   </ref> Other crucial factors that would contribute to higher rates of minority enrollment include encouraging students through policies and rewards for focusing on information pertaining to college, providing schools with the necessary resources, and cultivating the classroom environment to be encouraging of students’ skills so that they are better prepared for college.<ref name=":3">Roderick, M., Nagaoka, J., & Coca, V. (2009) College Readiness for All: The Challenge for Urban High Schools. ''The Future of Children, 19''(1), pp. 185-204) https://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&AuthType=ip,sso&db=ehh&AN=43308224&scope=site&custid=s8448101</ref> Organizations like the National Association for College Admission Counseling should also be more aware of this issue as well as do more to bring more attention to these disparities.<ref name=":4">Jackson, N. (1988) Minority access to higher education. ''The Journal of College Admissions''. 53-62. https://files.eric.ed.gov/fulltext/EJ992740.pdf   </ref> Changes also must occur on an institution level for minority students to better succeed.<ref name=":5">Hrabowski, F. A. (2011) Institutional change in higher education: innovation and collaboration. ''Peabody Journal of Education, 89'', pp. 291-304. {{doi|10.1080/0161956X.2014.913440}}</ref>

Programs like the ones developed at the University of Maryland, Baltimore County work towards eliminating disparities in higher education access in minority students. Their programs mostly focus on minorities having better access and getting more involved in science, technology, engineering, and mathematics (STEM) fields. One program, the Meyerhoff Scholars Program, aids students by addressing the social capital aspect college readiness. This program connects students to financial resources as well as academic and social support, and they also receive research opportunities and connect with on-campus staff members.<ref name=":5">Hrabowski, F. A. (2011) Institutional change in higher education: innovation and collaboration. ''Peabody Journal of Education, 89'', pp. 291-304. {{doi|10.1080/0161956X.2014.913440}}</ref> Other programs like the ACTiVATE program and the Partnerships for Innovation Program have stemmed from the Meyerhoff Scholars Program. These have pushed minority students towards success in accessing and completing post-secondary education, especially in STEM fields.<ref name=":5">Hrabowski, F. A. (2011) Institutional change in higher education: innovation and collaboration. ''Peabody Journal of Education, 89'', pp. 291-304. {{doi|10.1080/0161956X.2014.913440}}</ref> Other programs across the country have also aided minority students in succeeding in higher education.