Editing Turkish Armed Forces (section)

===War of Independence===
{{main|Turkish War of Independence}}

The Turkish War of Independence (19 May 1919 – 24 July 1923) was a series of military campaigns waged by the [[Turkish National Movement]] after parts of the [[Ottoman Empire]] were occupied and partitioned following its defeat in [[World War I]]. These campaigns were directed against [[Greco-Turkish War (1919–1922)|Greece in the west]], [[Turkish–Armenian War|Armenia in the east]], [[Franco-Turkish War|France in the south]], [[Revolts during the Turkish War of Independence|loyalists and separatists in various cities]], and [[Occupation of Constantinople|British and Ottoman troops around Constantinople (İstanbul)]].<ref name="Britannica">{{cite web|publisher=Encyclopædia Britannica|url=http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-44425/Turkey|title=Turkey, Mustafa Kemal and the Turkish War of Independence, 1919–23|access-date=29 October 2007|year=2007|archive-date=25 June 2008|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080625023040/http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-44425/Turkey|url-status=live}}</ref>

The ethnic demographics of the modern [[Turkey|Turkish Republic]] were significantly impacted by the earlier [[Armenian genocide]] and the deportations of Greek-speaking, Orthodox Christian [[Rum Millet|Rum people]].{{Sfn|Landis|Albert|2012|p=264}} The Turkish National Movement carried out massacres and deportations to eliminate native [[Christians|Christian]] populations{{snd}}a continuation of the Armenian genocide and [[late Ottoman genocides|other ethnic cleansing operations]] during World War I.<ref>* {{cite book|last1=Üngör|first1=Uğur Ümit|title=The Making of Modern Turkey: Nation and State in Eastern Anatolia, 1913–1950|title-link=The Making of Modern Turkey|date=2011|publisher=Oxford University Press|isbn=978-0-19-965522-9|page=121|language=en|quote=As such, the Greco-Turkish and Armeno-Turkish wars (1919–23) were in essence processes of state formation that represented a continuation of ethnic unmixing and exclusion of Ottoman Christians from Anatolia.|author1-link=Uğur Ümit Üngör}}
* {{cite book|last1=Kieser|first1=Hans-Lukas|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=b53tAAAAMAAJ&q=%22Turkish+war+of+independence%22+%22ethnic+cleansing%22|title=A Quest for Belonging: Anatolia Beyond Empire and Nation (19th–21st Centuries)|date=2007|publisher=Isis Press|isbn=978-975-428-345-7|page=171|language=en|quote=The Treaty of Lausanne in 1923 officially recognized the " ethnic cleansing " that had gone on during the Turkish War of Independence (1919–1922 ) for the sake of undisputed Turkish rule in Asia Minor .|author1-link=Hans-Lukas Kieser|access-date=4 May 2021|archive-date=15 January 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230115124334/https://books.google.com/books?id=b53tAAAAMAAJ&q=%22Turkish+war+of+independence%22+%22ethnic+cleansing%22|url-status=live}}
* {{cite journal|last1=Avedian|first1=Vahagn|date=2012|title=State Identity, Continuity, and Responsibility: The Ottoman Empire, the Republic of Turkey and the Armenian Genocide|url=https://academic.oup.com/ejil/article/23/3/797/399905|journal=European Journal of International Law|language=en|volume=23|issue=3|pages=797–820|doi=10.1093/ejil/chs056|issn=0938-5428|quote=The 'War of Independence' was not against the occupying Allies – a myth invented by Kemalists – but rather a campaign to rid Turkey of remaining non-Turkish elements. In fact, Nationalists never clashed with Entente occupying forces until the French forces with Armenian contingents and Armenian deportees began to return to Cilicia in late 1919.|doi-access=free|access-date=14 April 2021|archive-date=7 May 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210507161711/https://academic.oup.com/ejil/article/23/3/797/399905|url-status=live}}
* {{cite book|last1=Kévorkian|first1=Raymond|title=Collective and State Violence in Turkey: The Construction of a National Identity from Empire to Nation-State|date=2020|publisher=Berghahn Books|isbn=978-1-78920-451-3|editor1-last=Astourian|editor1-first=Stephan|page=165|language=en|chapter=The Final Phase: The Cleansing of Armenian and Greek Survivors, 1919–1922|quote=The famous 'war of national liberation', prepared by the Unionists and waged by Kemal, was a vast operation, intended to complete the genocide by finally eradicating Armenian, Greek, and Syriac survivors.|editor2-last=Kévorkian|editor2-first=Raymond|author-link=Raymond Kévorkian}}
* {{cite book|last1=Gingeras|first1=Ryan|title=Fall of the Sultanate: The Great War and the End of the Ottoman Empire, 1908–1922|date=2016|publisher=Oxford University Press|isbn=978-0-19-967607-1|page=288|language=en|quote=While the number of victims in Ankara's deportations remains elusive, evidence from other locations suggest that the Nationalists were as equally disposed to collective punishment and population politics as their Young Turk antecedents... As in the First World War, the mass deportation of civilians was symptomatic of how precarious the Nationalists felt their prospects were.|author-link=Ryan Gingeras}}
* {{cite book|last1=Kieser|first1=Hans-Lukas|title=[[Talaat Pasha: Father of Modern Turkey, Architect of Genocide]]|date=2018|publisher=Princeton University Press|isbn=978-1-4008-8963-1|pages=319–320|quote=Thus, from spring 1919, Kemal Pasha resumed, with ex-CUP forces, domestic war against Greek and Armenian rivals. These were partly backed by victors of World War I who had, however, abstained from occupying Asia Minor. The war for Asia Minor{{snd}}in national diction, again a war of salvation and independence, thus in-line with what had begun in 1913{{snd}}accomplished Talaat's demographic Turkification beginning on the eve of World War I. Resuming Talaat's Pontus policy of 1916–17, this again involved collective physical annihilation, this time of the Rûm of Pontus at the Black Sea.|author1-link=Hans-Lukas Kieser}}
* {{lay source |template=cite encyclopedia |last1=Kieser |first1=Hans-Lukas |entry=Pasha, Talat |url=https://encyclopedia.1914-1918-online.net/article/pasha_talat |encyclopedia=1914–1918-online. International Encyclopedia of the First World War}}
* {{cite journal|last1=Levene|first1=Mark|date=2020|title=Through a Glass Darkly: The Resurrection of Religious Fanaticism as First Cause of Ottoman Catastrophe|journal=Journal of Genocide Research|volume=22|issue=4|pages=553–560|doi=10.1080/14623528.2020.1735560|s2cid=222145177|quote=Ittihadist violence was as near as near could be optimal against the Armenians (and Syriacs) and in the final Kemalist phase was quantitively entirely the greater in an increasingly asymmetric conflict where, for instance, Kemal could deport "enemies" into a deep interior in a way that his adversaries could not..., it was the hard men, self-styled saviours of the Ottoman-Turkish state, and – culminating in Kemal – unapologetic génocidaires, who were able to wrest its absolute control.|author-link=Mark Levene}}
* {{Cite book|last1=Ze'evi|first1=Dror|title=The Thirty-Year Genocide: Turkey's Destruction of Its Christian Minorities, 1894–1924|last2=Morris|first2=Benny|publisher=[[Harvard University Press]]|year=2019|isbn=978-0674916456|location=Cambridge, MA|pages=672|language=en}}
* [[Levon Marashlian]], "Finishing the Genocide: Cleansing Turkey of Armenian Survivors, 1920–1923," in Remembrance and Denial: The Case of the Armenian Genocide, ed. Richard Hovannisian (Detroit: Wayne State University Press, 1999), pp. 113–145: "Between 1920 and 1923, as Turkish and Western diplomats were negotiating the fate of the Armenian Question at peace conferences in London, Paris, and Lausanne, thousands of Armenians of the Ottoman Empire who had survived the massacres and deportations of World War I continued to face massacres, deportations, and persecutions across the length and breadth of Anatolia. Events on the ground, diplomatic correspondence, and news reports confirmed that it was the policy of the Turkish Nationalists in Angora, who eventually founded the Republic of Turkey, to eradicate the remnants of the empire's Armenian population and finalize the expropriation of their public and private properties."
* {{cite book |editor-last=Hovannisian |editor-first=Richard G. |title=Remembrance and Denial: The Case of the Armenian Genocide |date=1998 |publisher=Wayne State University Press |location=Detroit |isbn=978-0-8143-2777-7 |last=Marashlian |first=Levon |author-link=Levon Marashlian |chapter=Finishing the Genocide: Cleansing Turkey of Armenian Survivors, 1920–1923 |pages=113–145 |quote=Between 1920 and 1923, as Turkish and Western diplomats were negotiating the fate of the Armenian Question at peace conferences in London, Paris, and Lausanne, thousands of Armenians of the Ottoman Empire who had survived the massacres and deportations of World War I continued to face massacres, deportations, and persecutions across the length and breadth of Anatolia. Events on the ground, diplomatic correspondence, and news reports confirmed that it was the policy of the Turkish Nationalists in Angora, who eventually founded the Republic of Turkey, to eradicate the remnants of the empire's Armenian population and finalize the expropriation of their public and private properties.}}
* {{cite book|last1=Shirinian|first1=George N.|title=Genocide in the Ottoman Empire: Armenians, Assyrians, and Greeks, 1913–1923|date=2017|publisher=Berghahn Books|isbn=978-1-78533-433-7|page=62|language=en|quote=The argument that there was a mutually signed agreement for the population exchange ignores the fact that the Ankara government had already declared its intention that no Greek should remain on Turkish soil before the exchange was even discussed. The final killing and expulsion of the Greek population of the Ottoman Empire in 1920–24 was part of a series of hostile actions that began even before Turkey's entry into World War I.}}
* {{cite encyclopedia|title=Ataturk, Mustafa Kemal|encyclopedia=Encyclopedia of Genocide: A–H|publisher=[[ABC-CLIO]]|url=https://www.armenian-genocide.org/kemal.html|date=1999|author1-link=Rouben Paul Adalian|editor-last=Charny|editor-first=Israel W.|language=en|isbn=978-0-87436-928-1|quote=Mustafa Kemal completed what Talaat and Enver had started in 1915, the eradication of the Armenian population of Anatolia and the termination of Armenian political aspirations in the Caucasus. With the expulsion of the Greeks, the Turkification and Islamification of Asia Minor was nearly complete.|last1=Adalian|first1=Rouben Paul|access-date=4 May 2021|archive-date=16 May 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210516032216/https://www.armenian-genocide.org/kemal.html|url-status=live}}
* {{cite book|last1=Morris|first1=Benny|title=The Thirty-Year Genocide: Turkey's Destruction of Its Christian Minorities, 1894–1924|title-link=The Thirty-Year Genocide|last2=Ze'evi|first2=Dror|date=2019|publisher=Harvard University Press|isbn=978-0-674-91645-6|quote=The Greek seizure of Smyrna and the repeated pushes inland{{snd}}almost to the outskirts of Ankara, the Nationalist capital{{snd}}coupled with the largely imagined threat of a Pontine breakaway, triggered a widespread, systematic four-year campaign of ethnic cleansing in which hundreds of thousands of Ottoman Greeks were massacred and more than a million deported to Greece... throughout 1914–1924, the overarching aim was to achieve a Turkey free of Greeks.|author-link=Benny Morris|author2-link=Dror Ze'evi}}
* {{cite journal|last1=Meichanetsidis|first1=Vasileios Th.|date=2015|title=The Genocide of the Greeks of the Ottoman Empire, 1913–1923: A Comprehensive Overview|journal=Genocide Studies International|volume=9|issue=1|pages=104–173|doi=10.3138/gsi.9.1.06|s2cid=154870709|url=https://muse.jhu.edu/journal/690|quote=The genocide was committed by two subsequent and chronologically, ideologically, and organically interrelated and interconnected dictatorial and chauvinist regimes: (1) the regime of the CUP, under the notorious triumvirate of the three pashas (Üç Paşalar), Talât, Enver, and Cemal, and (2) the rebel government at Samsun and Ankara, under the authority of the Grand National Assembly (Türkiye Büyük Millet Meclisi) and Kemal. Although the process had begun before the Balkan Wars, the final and most decisive period started immediately after WWI and ended with the almost total destruction of the Pontic Greeks ...|access-date=8 December 2022|archive-date=23 November 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221123070747/https://muse.jhu.edu/journal/690|url-status=live}}</ref> Following these campaigns of ethnic cleansing the historic Christian presence in Anatolia was destroyed, in large part, and the Muslim demographic had increased from 80% to 98%.{{Sfn|Landis|Albert|2012|p=264}}

While [[World War I]] ended for the Ottoman Empire with the [[Armistice of Mudros]], the [[Allies of World War I|Allied Powers]] occupied parts of the empire and sought to prosecute former members of the [[Committee of Union and Progress]] and others involved in the [[Armenian genocide]].<ref>Zürcher, Erik Jan. ''The Unionist Factor: The Role of the Committee of Union and Progress in the Turkish National Movement, 1905–1926''. Leiden: E.J. Brill, 1984.</ref><ref name="Avedian">{{cite journal|last1=Avedian|first1=Vahagn|date=2012|title=State Identity, Continuity, and Responsibility: The Ottoman Empire, the Republic of Turkey and the Armenian Genocide|url=https://academic.oup.com/ejil/article/23/3/797/399905|journal=European Journal of International Law|language=en|volume=23|issue=3|pages=797–820|doi=10.1093/ejil/chs056|issn=0938-5428|doi-access=free|access-date=14 April 2021|archive-date=7 May 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210507161711/https://academic.oup.com/ejil/article/23/3/797/399905|url-status=live}}</ref> Ottoman military commanders therefore refused orders from both the Allies and the [[Government of the late Ottoman Empire|Ottoman government]] to surrender and disband their forces. This crisis reached a head when [[sultan]] [[Mehmed VI]] dispatched [[Mustafa Kemal Atatürk|Mustafa Kemal Pasha (Atatürk)]], a well-respected and high-ranking general, to [[Anatolia]] to restore order; however, Mustafa Kemal became an enabler and eventually leader of [[Turkish National Movement]] against the Ottoman government, Allied powers, and Christian minorities. on 3 May 1920, [[Birinci Ferik]] [[Fevzi Çakmak|Mustafa Fevzi Pasha]] (Çakmak) was appointed the Minister of National Defence, and [[Mirliva]] [[İsmet İnönü|İsmet Pasha]] (İnönü) was appointed the Minister of the Chief of General Staff of the [[government of the Grand National Assembly]] (GNA).<ref name="Akademi">Harp Akademileri Komutanlığı, ''Harp Akademilerinin 120 Yılı'', İstanbul, 1968, pp. 26, 46.</ref>

In an attempt to establish control over the power vacuum in Anatolia, the Allies persuaded [[Prime Minister of Greece|Greek Prime Minister]] [[Eleftherios Venizelos]] to launch an expeditionary force into Anatolia and [[Occupation of Smyrna|occupy Smyrna]] (İzmir), beginning the Turkish War of Independence. A nationalist [[Government of the Grand National Assembly]] (GNA) led by Mustafa Kemal was established in [[Ankara]] when it became clear the Ottoman government was backing the Allied powers. The Allies soon pressured the Ottoman government in Constantinople into suspending the [[Constitution of the Ottoman Empire|Constitution]], shuttering the [[Chamber of Deputies (Ottoman Empire)|Parliament]], and signing the [[Treaty of Sèvres]], a treaty that the "[[Ankara government]]" declared illegal.

In the ensuing war, [[Kuva-yi Milliye|irregular militia]] defeated the [[Franco-Turkish War|French forces in the south]], and undemobilized units went on to [[Turkish–Armenian War|partition Armenia]] with [[Red Army|Bolshevik forces]], resulting in the [[Treaty of Kars]] (October 1921). The Western Front of the independence war was known as the [[Greco-Turkish War (1919–1922)|Greco-Turkish War]], in which Greek forces at first encountered unorganized resistance. However [[İsmet İnönü|İsmet Pasha]]'s organization of militia into a [[Turkish Land Forces|regular army]] paid off when Ankara forces fought the Greeks in the [[First Battle of İnönü|First]] and [[Second Battle of İnönü]]. The Greek army emerged victorious in the [[Battle of Kütahya–Eskişehir|Battle of Kütahya-Eskişehir]] and decided to attack Ankara, stretching their supply lines. On 3 August 1921, the GNA fired İsmet Pasha from the post of Minister of National Defence because of his failure at the [[Battle of Afyonkarahisar–Eskişehir]] and on 5 August, just before the [[Battle of Sakarya]], appointed the chairman of the GNA Atatürk as [[commander-in-chief]] of the Army of the GNA. The Turks checked the Greek advance in the [[Battle of Sakarya]] and counter-attacked in the [[Great Offensive]], which expelled Greek forces from Anatolia in the span of three weeks. The war effectively ended with the [[Turkish capture of Smyrna]] and the [[Chanak Crisis]], prompting the signing of the [[Armistice of Mudanya]].

The Grand National Assembly in Ankara was recognized as the legitimate Turkish government, which signed the [[Treaty of Lausanne]] in July 1923. The Allies evacuated Anatolia and [[Eastern Thrace]], the Ottoman government was overthrown and the [[Abolition of the Ottoman sultanate|monarchy abolished]], and the [[Grand National Assembly of Turkey]] (which remains Turkey's primary legislative body today) declared the [[Turkey|Republic of Turkey]] on 29 October 1923. With the war, a [[population exchange between Greece and Turkey]],<ref>{{cite book |last1=Suny |first1=Ronald Grigor|author-link=Ronald Grigor Suny |title='They Can Live in the Desert but Nowhere Else': A History of the Armenian Genocide|title-link=They Can Live in the Desert but Nowhere Else |date=2015 |publisher=Princeton University Press |isbn=978-1-4008-6558-1 |pages=364–365}} The Armenian Genocide, along with the killing of Assyrians and the expulsion of the Anatolian Greeks, laid the ground for the more homogeneous nation-state that arose from the ashes of the empire. Like many other states, including Australia, Israel, and the United States, the emergence of the Republic of Turkey involved the removal and subordination of native peoples who had lived on its territory prior to its founding.
* {{lay source |template=cite encyclopedia |author=Ronald Grigor Suny |date=26 May 2015 |title=Armenian Genocide |url=https://encyclopedia.1914-1918-online.net/article/armenian_genocide |encyclopedia=1914–1918-online. International Encyclopedia of the First World War}}</ref> the partitioning of the Ottoman Empire, and the [[Abolition of the Ottoman sultanate|abolition of the sultanate]], the Ottoman era came to an end, and with [[Atatürk's reforms]], the Turks created the modern, secular nation-state of Turkey. On 3 March 1924, the [[Abolition of the Caliphate|Ottoman caliphate was also abolished]].