Editing Tunis (section)

==History==
{{For timeline}}

===Carthage and early settlements===
{{Main|Carthage|Ancient Carthage|History of Carthage}}
[[File:Karthago Antoninus-Pius-Thermen.JPG|Ruins of the Roman [[Baths of Antoninus]] in Carthage.|thumb|left]]

The historical study of Carthage is problematic. Because its culture and records were destroyed by the Romans at the end of the [[Third Punic War]], very few Carthaginian [[primary source|primary historical sources]] survive. While there are a few ancient translations of [[Punic language|Punic]] texts into Greek and [[Latin]], as well as [[Canaanite and Aramaic inscriptions|inscriptions on monuments and buildings discovered in Northwest Africa]],<ref>{{cite web
 |last        = Jongeling
 |first       = K.
 |year        = 2005
 |url         = http://website.leidenuniv.nl/~jongelingk/projects/neopunic-inscr/puninscr.html
 |title       = The Neo-Punic Inscriptions and Coin Legends
 |publisher   = University of Leiden
 |access-date  = April 14, 2006
 |archive-url  = https://web.archive.org/web/20060629212917/http://website.leidenuniv.nl/~jongelingk/projects/neopunic-inscr/puninscr.html
 |archive-date = June 29, 2006
}}</ref> the main sources are [[Ancient Greece|Greek]] and [[Ancient Rome|Roman]] historians, including [[Livy]], [[Polybius]], [[Appian]], [[Cornelius Nepos]], [[Silius Italicus]], [[Plutarch]], [[Dio Cassius]], and [[Herodotus]]. These writers belonged to peoples in competition, and often in conflict, with Carthage.<ref name="Warmington_11">{{cite web|url=https://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&docId=9384201|title=Carthage – 1960, Page 11 by B. H. Warmington|access-date=2017-09-17|archive-date=2011-10-21|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111021114736/http://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&docId=9384201}}</ref> Greek cities contended with Carthage over [[Sicily]],<ref>Herodotus, V2. 165–7</ref> and the [[Roman Republic|Romans]] fought three wars [[Punic Wars|against Carthage]].<ref>Polybius, World History: 1.7–1.60</ref> Not surprisingly, their accounts of Carthage are extremely hostile; while there are a few Greek authors who took a favourable view, these works have been lost.<ref name="Warmington_11"/> The area was originally a Berber settlement.<ref name="Fromherz2016">{{cite book|author-link1=Allen James Fromherz| first= Allen James |last= Fromherz|title=Near West: Medieval North Africa, Latin Europe and the Mediterranean in the Second Axial Age |url= https://books.google.com/books?id=k5w7DwAAQBAJ&pg=PA87|date=16 March 2016|publisher=Edinburgh University Press|isbn=978-1-4744-1007-6 |page= 87}}</ref> The existence of settlements in and around the area of Tunis is attested by sources dating from the 4th century BC.<ref name="Sebag60">{{harvp|Sebag|1998|p=60}}</ref> Situated on a hill, its location served as an excellent point from which the comings and goings of naval and caravan traffic to and from Carthage could be observed. It was one of the first towns in the region to fall under Carthaginian control, and in the centuries that followed the settlement was mentioned in the military histories associated with [[Ancient Carthage|Carthage]]. Thus, during Agathocles' expedition, which landed at [[Cape Bon]] in 310 BC, the town changed hands on various occasions.{{Citation needed|date=November 2013}}

During the [[Mercenary War]], it is possible that the town served as a center for the native population of the area,<ref name="Sebag60"/> and that its population was mainly composed of peasants, fishermen, and craftsmen. Compared to the ancient ruins of Carthage, the town's ancient ruins are not as large. According to [[Strabo]], it was destroyed by the Romans in 146 BC during the [[Third Punic War]]. Both the town and Carthage were destroyed; the former, however, was rebuilt first<ref name="Sebag70">{{harvp|Sebag|1998|p=70}}</ref> under the rule of [[Augustus]] and became an important town under Roman control and the center of a booming agricultural industry. The township is mentioned as ''Thuni'' in the [[Tabula Peutingeriana]].<ref name="Sebag70"/> In the system of Roman roads for the [[Africa (Roman province)|Roman province of Africa]], the town had the title of {{lang|la|mutatio}} ("way station, resting place").<ref name="Sebag70"/> The borough, increasingly Romanized, was also eventually Christianized and became the seat of a [[bishop]]. However, it remained modestly sized compared to Carthage during this time.<ref name="Renate">{{cite web |url=http://www.saisonstunisiennes.com/articles/tunishistoire/ |title= Tunis - Émergence d'une capitale| first= Renate |last= Fisseler-Skandrani| language=fr| trans-title= Tunis - Emergence of a Capital |website= saisonstunisiennes.com |url-status=usurped |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20081204093252/http://www.saisonstunisiennes.com/articles/tunishistoire/ |archive-date=December 4, 2008}}</ref>

===Foundation and early Islamic period===
[[File:Tunis Zitouna-Moschee Minarett.JPG|thumb|Courtyard of [[Al-Zaytuna Mosque|Zaytuna Mosque]], founded in the late 7th century by the Umayyad dynasty]]
In the late 7th century, the Arab Muslims conquered the region, and in 698 a commune and a mosque were established at the outskirts of the ancient ruins, founded by [[Hassan ibn al-Nu'man]], which would become the city of Tunis and the [[Zaytuna Mosque]].<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Lea |first1=David |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ROR1xreEJTsC |title=A Political Chronology of Africa |last2=Rowe |first2=Annamarie |date=2001 |publisher=Taylor & Francis |isbn=978-1-85743-116-2 |page=437 |language=en}}</ref> The [[Medina of Tunis]], the oldest section of the city, dates from this period, during which the region was conquered by the [[Umayyad Caliphate]]. The city had the natural advantage of coastal access, via the [[Mediterranean]], to the major ports of southern Europe. Early on, Tunis played a military role; the Umayyads recognized the strategic importance of its proximity to the [[Strait of Sicily]], with a dockyard built upon the founding of the city by order of Caliph [[Abd al-Malik ibn Marwan|Abd al-Malik]]. From the beginning of the 8th century, Tunis was the ''[[chef-lieu]]'' of the area: it became the Umayyad, and later the [[Abbasid Caliphate|Abbasids]]' [[navy|naval]] base in the western [[Mediterranean Sea]], and took on considerable military importance.<ref name="Renate"/> Under the [[Aghlabid]]s, the city gained significance and benefited from economic improvements and became one of the most important in the caliphate,<ref name="Renate"/> and was briefly the national capital from the end of the reign of [[Ibrahim II of Ifriqiya|Ibrahim II]], from 902 until 909,<ref>{{harvp|Sebag|1998|p=87}}</ref> when control over [[Ifriqiya]] was handed to the newly founded [[Fatimid Caliphate]].

Local opposition to the authorities began to intensify in September 945, when [[Kharijites|Kharijite]] [[Insurgency|insurgents]] occupied Tunis, resulting in general pillaging.<ref name="Renate"/><ref name="Sebag88">{{harvp|Sebag|1998|p=88}}</ref> With the rise of the Fatimid-viceregal [[Zirid dynasty]] the [[Sunni]] population tolerated Shi'ite rule less and less, and carried out massacres against the Shi'ite community.<ref name="Sebag88"/> In 1048 the Zirid ruler [[Al-Muizz ibn Badis]] rejected his city's obedience to the Fatimids and re-established Sunni rites throughout all of Ifriqiya. This decision infuriated the Fatimid Caliph [[Ma'ad al-Mustansir Billah|Al-Mustansir Billah]]. To punish the Zirids, he unleashed the [[Banu Hilal]] Arab tribe on Ifriqiya; a large part of the country was set to the torch, the Zirid capital [[Kairouan]] was razed in 1057, and only a few coastal towns, including Tunis and [[Mahdia]], escaped destruction.

Exposed to violence from the hostile tribes that settled around the city, the population of Tunis repudiated the authority of the Zirids and swore allegiance to the [[Hammadid]] prince [[Nasir ibn Alnas|El Nacer ibn Alennas]], who was based in [[Béjaïa]], in 1059. The governor appointed by Béjaïa, having reestablished order in the country, did not hesitate to free himself from the Hammadids to found the [[Khurasanid dynasty]] with Tunis as its capital. This small independent kingdom picked up the threads of trade and commerce with other nations and brought the region back to peace and prosperity.<ref>M. Th Houtsma, First Encyclopaedia of Islam: 1913–1936, BRILL, 1987 p.839</ref>

[[File:Piri Reis - Map of the Tunisian Coast with the Ports of Bizerte and Tunis as Far as Kelibia - Walters W658279B - Full Page.jpg|thumb|Historic map of Tunis by [[Piri Reis]]. [[The Walters Art Museum]].]]

===New capital of Tunisia===
In 1159, the [[Almohad Caliphate|Almohad]] '[[Abd al-Mu'min]] took Tunis, overthrew the last Khurasanid leader, and installed a new government in the [[kasbah]] of Tunis.<ref name="Renate"/> [[Almohad conquest of Norman Africa|The Almohad conquest]] marked the beginning of the dominance of the city in Tunisia. Having previously played a minor role behind [[Kairouan]] and [[Mahdia]], Tunis was promoted to the rank of provincial capital.

In 1228, Governor [[Abu Zakariya]] seized power and, a year later, took the title of Emir and founded the [[Hafsid dynasty]]. The city became the capital of a Hafsid kingdom stretching towards [[Tripoli, Libya|Tripoli]] and [[Fes|Fez]]. Walls were built to protect the emerging principal town of the kingdom, surrounding the medina, the kasbah, and the new suburbs of Tunis. In 1270 the city was taken briefly by [[Louis IX of France]], who was hoping to convert the Hafsid sovereign to Christianity. King Louis easily captured [[Carthage]], but his army soon fell victim to an outbreak of dysentery. Louis himself died before the walls of the capital and his army were forced out. At the same time, driven by the reconquest of Spain, the first Andalusian Muslims and Jews arrived in Tunis and would become of importance to the economic prosperity of the Hafsid capital and the development of its intellectual life.<ref name="Renate"/>

During the Almohad and Hafsid periods, Tunis was one of the richest and grandest cities in the [[Muslim world|Islamic world]], with a population of about 100,000. Like the Almohads, the Hafsids maintained Christian mercenaries who lived in a neighbourhood closed off with a gate near the Hafsid palace complex. They worshipped in a church dedicated to [[Saint Francis of Assisi]] which visitors described as "very beautiful and great" and which was allowed to ring the bell, a practice forbidden by the so-called [[Pact of Umar]] and a privilege not granted to the Genoese and Venetian merchants who maintained chapels in their merchant quarters. When Jean Adorno visited Tunis in 1470, he described these Christians as assimilated culturally and linguistically into Tunisian society, though they remained Christians and would sing in Latin during mass.<ref name="Lower">{{cite book |last1=Lower |first1=Michael |editor1-last=France |editor1-first=John |editor2-last=DeVries |editor2-first=Kelly |editor3-last=Rogers |editor3-first=Clifford J. |title=Journal of Medieval Military History |date=20 October 2016 |publisher=Boydell & Brewer |isbn=978-1-78327-130-6 |pages=119–120 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=pY3gDQAAQBAJ |access-date=11 May 2024 |language=en |chapter=Medieval European Mercenaries in North Africa}}</ref>

During this period, one of the famous travelers to Tunis was [[Ibn Battuta]]. In his travel account, when Ibn Battuta and his group arrived in Tunis, the population of the city came out to meet him and the other members of his party. They all greeted them and were very curious, many were asking questions, however, no one in Tunis personally greeted Ibn Battuta, greatly upsetting him. He felt very lonely and could not hold back the tears coming from his eyes. This went on for a while until one of the pilgrims realized he was upset, he went up and greeted and talked to Ibn Battuta until he entered the city. At the time, the Sultan of Tunis was Abu Yahya and during Ibn Battuta's stay, the Festival of the Breaking of the Fast was taking place. The people in the city assembled in large numbers to celebrate the festival, in extravagant and most luxurious outfits. Abu Yahya arrived on horseback, where all of his relatives joined him. After the performance, the people returned to their homes.<ref>Ibn Battuta, The Travels of Ibn Battuta</ref>

===Spanish occupation and Ottoman control===
{{see also|Ottoman Tunisia}}

The [[Ottoman Empire]] took nominal control of Tunis in 1534 when [[Hayreddin Barbarossa]] [[Conquest of Tunis (1534)|captured it]] from the Hafsid Sultan [[Abu Abdallah Muhammad V al-Hasan|Mulai Hassan]], who fled to the court of [[Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor]] and King of Spain. Charles, suffering losses from the [[Privateer|corsairs]] operating out of [[Djerba]], Tunis, and [[Algiers]], agreed to reinstate Mulai Hassan in exchange for his acceptance of Spanish suzerainty. A naval expedition led by Charles himself was dispatched in 1535, and the city was recaptured. [[Conquest of Tunis (1535)|The victory]] against the corsairs is recorded in a tapestry at the [[Royal Palace of Madrid]]. The Spanish governor of [[La Goulette]], Luys Peres Varga, fortified the island of [[Chikly]] in the lake of Tunis to strengthen the city's defenses between 1546 and 1550. 
[[File:Charles quint a tunis.png|left|thumb|Entry of [[Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor|Charles V]] into Tunis in 1535]] 
The Ottoman [[Uluç Ali Reis]], at the head of an army of [[janissaries]] and [[Kabyles]], retook Tunis in 1569. However, following the [[Battle of Lepanto (1571)|Battle of Lepanto]] in 1571, the Spanish under [[John of Austria]] succeeded in [[Conquest of Tunis (1573)|retaking the city]] and re-establishing the Hafsid sovereign in October 1573. Following these conflicts, the city finally [[Conquest of Tunis (1574)|fell into Ottoman hands]] in August 1574. Having become an Ottoman province governed by a [[Pasha]] who was appointed by the Sultan based in [[Constantinople]], the country attained a degree of autonomy. After 1591, the Ottoman governors ([[Bey]]s) were relatively independent, and both piracy and trade continued to flourish. Under the rule of [[dey]]s and [[bey]]s, the capital sprang into new life. Its population grew by additions from various ethnicities, among which were Moorish refugees from Spain, and economic activities diversified. To traditional industry and trade with distant lands was added the activity of the [[Barbary pirates]], then in their golden age. Profits obtained from the trade in Christian [[Barbary Slave Trade|slaves]] allowed the rulers to build sumptuous structures that revived the architectural heritage of the Middle Ages.<ref name="Renate"/>
[[File:Khazdadar.JPG|thumb|upright=0.7|[[Mustapha Khaznadar]], [[Prime Minister of Tunisia|Prime Minister]] of Tunis from 1837 to 1873.<ref>{{cite book |author= Morsy, Magali |title=North Africa, 1800–1900: a survey from the Nile Valley to the Atlantic |publisher=Longman |year=1984 |page=185 |isbn=0-582-78377-1 |quote=Mustafa Khaznadar became Prime Minister in 1837, a position he maintained under three successive beys, more or less continuously until 1873. }}</ref> and one of the most influential persons in modern Tunisian history.<ref>{{cite book |author= Ziadeh, Nicola A. |title=Origins of nationalism in Tunisia |publisher=Librarie du Liban |year=1969 |page=11 |oclc=3062278 |quote= Mustafa Khaznadar was of Greek origin (born 1817), and proved to be one of the most influential persons Tunisia saw in her modern history. He took the interest of his master and the country to heart and did all he could to prevail on Ahmad Bey to see that Tunisia acquired as much as she could }}</ref>]]
In April 1655 the English admiral [[Robert Blake (admiral)|Robert Blake]] was sent to the Mediterranean to extract compensation from states that had been attacking English shipping. Only the Bey of Tunis refused to comply, with the result that Blake's fifteen ships attacked the Bey's arsenal at Porto Farina (Ghar el Melh), destroying nine Algerian ships and two shore batteries, the first time in naval warfare that shore batteries had been eliminated without landing men ashore.

At the beginning of the 18th century, Tunisia entered into a new period in its history with the advent of the [[Husainid dynasty]]. Successive Husainid rulers made great progress in developing the city and its buildings. During this period, the city prospered as a center of commerce. Taking advantage of divisions within the ruling house, Algerians captured Tunis in 1756 and put the country under supervision. [[Hammuda ibn Ali|Hammouda Bey]] faced bombardment by the Venetian fleet, and the city experienced a rebellion in 1811.<ref>{{harvp|Messikh|2000|p=32}}</ref> Under the reign of [[Al-Husayn II ibn Mahmud|Hussein Bey II]], naval defeats by the British (1826) and French (1827) saw the French become increasingly active in the city and in the economy.<ref>{{harvp|Messikh|2000|p=34}}</ref>

Various sources estimate the 19th-century population to have ranged from 90,000 to 110,000 inhabitants.<ref>{{harvp|Sebag|1998|p=280}}</ref> During the later 19th century, Tunis became increasingly populated by Europeans, particularly the French, and immigration dramatically increased the size of the city. This resulted in the first demolition of the old city walls, from 1860, to accommodate growth in the suburbs. The city spilled outside the area of the earlier town and the banks of the lake, and the new districts were modernized with running water (1860), lighting gas (1872), roads, waste collection (1873), and communication with adjacent suburbs and the city center.<ref>{{harvp|Sebag|1998|p=261}}</ref> The crafts and traditional trades declined somewhat, as the newcomers increased trade with Europe, introducing the first modern industries and new forms of urban life.

===Development under the French protectorate===
{{see also|History of French-era Tunisia}}
[[File:Tunisia view 1890s2.jpg|right|thumb|View of Tunis c. 1890–1900. Zaytuna Mosque is slightly right of center.]]
[[File:Plan tunis 1890 1914.jpg|left|thumb|Urban evolution between 1890 and 1914]]
[[File:Bab Suika-Suker Square, Tunis, Tunisia, ca. 1899.jpg|thumb|[[Bab Souika]] Square in Tunis, ca. 1899]]

The creation of the [[French protectorate of Tunisia|French protectorate]] in 1881 was a turning point in Tunis's history, leading to rapid redevelopment of the city in the span of two to three decades. The city quickly spread out of its fortifications: it divided into a traditional Arab-populated old city, and a new city populated by immigrants, with a different structure from that of the traditional [[Medina of Tunis|medina]]. Tunis also benefited from the French construction of a [[Water supply network|water supply]], natural gas and electricity networks, [[public transport]] services, and other public infrastructure.

Under French rule, a substantial number of Europeans settled (like the [[Tunisian Italians]]); half of the population was European in origin.<ref>Albert Habib Hourani, Malise Ruthven (2002). "''[https://books.google.com/books?id=egbOb0mewz4C&pg=PA323 A history of the Arab peoples]''". Harvard University Press. p.323. {{ISBN|0-674-01017-5}}</ref> The city expanded and created new boulevards and neighborhoods.

Tunis was quiet during the First World War. After the war, the city faced new transformations as the modern portion grew in importance and extended its network of boulevards and streets in all directions. In addition, a series of satellite cities emerged on the urban rim and encroached on the municipality of Tunis proper. In the economic sphere, commercial activities expanded and diversified as modern industries continued to grow, while traditional industry continued to decline.

During World War II, Tunis was held by [[Axis powers|Axis]] forces from November 1942 to May 1943. It was their last base in Africa, as they retreated towards [[Sicily]] after being surrounded by [[Allies of World War II|Allied]] forces from Algeria to the west and from Libya to the east.<ref>Rolf, David, ''The Bloody Road to Tunis: Destruction of the Axis Forces in North Africa, November 1942 – May 1943''. London: Greenhill Books, {{ISBN|978-1-85367-445-7}}</ref> 
On 7 May 1943, at about 15:30 in the afternoon, Tunis fell to troops of [[First Army (United Kingdom)|British 1st Army]] and the [[First United States Army|U.S. 1st Army]], which had defeated the [[5th Panzer Army|German 5th Panzer Army]] guarding the city. At midday on 20 May 1943, the Allies held a victory parade on Avenue Maréchal Galliéni, and Avenue Jules Ferry, to signal the end of fighting in North Africa.<ref>Atkinson, Rick (2002), ''An Army at Dawn: The War in North Africa, 1942–1943''. New York: Henry Holt, {{ISBN|978-0-8050-6288-5}}</ref>

Having succeeded in driving the Axis powers out of Tunisia, the Allies used Tunis as a base of operations from which to stage [[amphibious assault]]s first against the island of [[Pantelleria]], and then [[Sicily]], and finally the mainland of [[Italy]].<ref>Atkinson, Rick (2007), ''The Day of Battle: The War in Sicily and Italy, 1943–1944''. New York: Henry Holt, {{ISBN|978-0-8050-6289-2}}</ref>

===Growth since independence===
[[File:El menzah 1955.jpg|left|thumb|Extension of the city in the 1950s with the district of El Menzah]]

After independence in 1956, Tunis consolidated its role as the capital, first with the establishment of a constitution stating that the [[Chamber of Deputies (Tunisia)|Chamber of Deputies]] and the [[President of Tunisia|Presidency of the Republic]] must have their headquarters in Tunis and its suburbs. In a very short time, the colonial city transformed rapidly. As the city has grown and native Tunisians gradually began to replace the extensive European population, the conflict between the Arab city and the European city has gradually decreased with the arabization of the population.

Because of population pressure and the rate of migration to the capital, the city continued to grow, even with the creation of new districts in the suburbs. Old buildings have gradually been renovated and upgraded. New buildings have come to influence the urban landscape. At the same time, an active policy of industrialization is developing the municipal economy. The [[Medina of Tunis]] has been a [[UNESCO World Heritage Site]] since 1979.

The [[Arab League]] represents 22 Arab nations. It transferred its headquarters to Tunis in 1979 because of Egypt's peace with Israel. The Arab League returned to Egypt in 1990.

The [[Palestine Liberation Organization]] also had its headquarters in Tunis, from 1982<ref>{{Cite web |url= https://www.latimes.com/archives/la-xpm-1995-08-10-mn-33686-story.html|title = PLO's Office in Tunisia, Now a Lonely Outpost: North Africa: Israel won't allow some officials into Gaza or Jericho. So they hang on, missing the old days|website = [[Los Angeles Times]] |date = 10 August 1995}}</ref> to 2003. In 1985, the PLO's headquarters [[Operation Wooden Leg|was bombed]] by [[Israeli Air Force]] F-15s, killing approximately 60 people.

=== 21st century ===
{{main|Tunisian Revolution}}

Many protests took place during the [[Arab Spring]] of 2011–12.

On 18 March 2015, [[Bardo National Museum attack|two gunmen attacked]] the [[Bardo National Museum (Tunis)|Bardo National Museum]] and held hostages.<ref name="reuters">{{cite news|url=https://www.reuters.com/article/us-tunisia-security-idUSKBN0ME18E20150318|title=Gunmen storm Tunisian museum, kill 17 foreign tourists|date=18 March 2017|newspaper=Reuters|last1=Argoubi|first1=Tarek Amara}}</ref> Twenty civilians and one policeman were killed in the attack, while around 50 others were injured.<ref name="nytimes1">{{cite news|title=The Latest: French President Mourns Tunisia Victims|url=https://www.nytimes.com/aponline/2015/03/18/world/middleeast/ap-ml-tunisia-attack-the-latest.html|access-date=19 March 2015|work=[[The New York Times]]|date=18 March 2015}}</ref> Five Japanese, two Colombians, and visitors from Italy, Poland, and Spain were among the dead. Both gunmen were killed by Tunisian police. The incident has been treated as a [[terrorist attack]].<ref>{{cite news|url=http://america.aljazeera.com/articles/2015/3/18/tourists-killed-in-tunisia-museum-assault.html|title=19 killed in Tunisia attack; hostage drama ends with deaths of gunmen|date=March 18, 2015|website=[[Al Jazeera America]]|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230925120313/http://america.aljazeera.com/articles/2015/3/18/tourists-killed-in-tunisia-museum-assault.html|archive-date=September 25, 2023}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|last1=Marszal|first1=Andrew|title=Gunmen 'take hostages' in attack on Tunisia parliament. |url=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/africaandindianocean/tunisia/11479898/Gunmen-take-hostages-in-attack-on-Tunisia-parliament.html|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150318130121/http://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/africaandindianocean/tunisia/11479898/Gunmen-take-hostages-in-attack-on-Tunisia-parliament.html|archive-date=18 March 2015|access-date=18 March 2015|work=The Telegraph|date=18 March 2015}}</ref>