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==History== {{Main|History of Tibetan Buddhism}} ===Pre–6th century=== Centuries after [[History of Buddhism in India|Buddhism originated in India]], the [[Mahayana]] Buddhism [[Chinese Buddhism|arrived in China]] through the Silk Route in 1st century CE via [[Tibet]].<ref name="camb12">Lee Injae, Owen Miller, Park Jinhoon, Yi Hyun-Hae, 2014, Korean History in Maps, Cambridge University Press, pp. 44–49, 52–60.</ref> During the 3rd century CE, Buddhism began to spread into the Tibetan region, and its teachings affected the Bon religion in the [[Zhangzhung|Kingdom of Zhangzhung]].<ref>{{Cite web |date=2024-02-29 |title=Timeline of Tibetan Buddhist History - Major Events |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240229041903/https://www.buddhanet.net/e-learning/history/tib_timeline.htm |access-date=2025-05-16 |website=web.archive.org}}</ref> ===First dissemination (7th–9th centuries)=== {{Main|Tibetan Empire}} {{multiple image | align = left | direction = vertical | width = 220 | image1 = Tibetan empire greatest extent 780s-790s CE.png | caption1 = Map of the Tibetan Empire at its greatest extent between the 780s and the 790s CE | image2 = A grand view of Samye.jpg | caption2 = [[Samye]] was the first gompa (Buddhist monastery) built in Tibet (775–779). }} While some stories depict Buddhism in Tibet before this period, the religion was formally introduced during the [[Tibetan Empire]] (7th–9th century CE). [[Sanskrit Buddhist literature|Sanskrit Buddhist scriptures]] from India were first translated into Tibetan under the reign of the Tibetan king [[Songtsän Gampo]] (618–649 CE).<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://studybuddhism.com/en/advanced-studies/history-culture/buddhism-in-tibet/tibetan-history-before-the-fifth-dalai-lama/the-empire-of-the-early-kings-of-tibet|title=The Empire of the Early Kings of Tibet|website=studybuddhism.com}}</ref> This period also saw the development of the [[Tibetan script|Tibetan writing system]] and [[classical Tibetan]].<ref>William Woodville Rockhill, {{Google books|avFDAQAAMAAJ|Annual Report of the Board of Regents of the Smithsonian Institution|page=671}}, United States National Museum, page 671</ref><ref>Berzin, Alexander. ''A Survey of Tibetan History - Reading Notes Taken'' by Alexander Berzin from Tsepon, W. D. Shakabpa, Tibet: A Political History. New Haven, Yale University Press, 1967: http://studybuddhism.com/web/en/archives/e-books/unpublished_manuscripts/survey_tibetan_history/chapter_1.html {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160617115552/http://studybuddhism.com/web/en/archives/e-books/unpublished_manuscripts/survey_tibetan_history/chapter_1.html|date=2016-06-17}}.</ref> In the 8th century, King [[Trisong Detsen]] (755–797 CE) established it as the official religion of the state<ref>{{cite book |last=Beckwith |first=C. I. |chapter=The revolt of 755 in Tibet |title=The History of Tibet |editor-first=Alex |editor-last=McKay |volume=1 |place=London |publisher=RoutledgeCurzon |year=2003 |pages=273–285 |isbn=9780700715084 |oclc=50494840}} (discusses the political background and the motives of the ruler).</ref> and commanded his army to wear robes and study Buddhism. Trisong Detsen invited Indian Buddhist scholars to his court, including [[Padmasambhava|Padmasambhāva]] (8th century CE) and [[Śāntarakṣita]] (725–788), who are considered the founders of [[Nyingma]] (''The Ancient Ones)'', the oldest tradition of Tibetan Buddhism.<ref name="StudyBuddhism.com">{{cite web |last=Berzin |first=Alexander |year=2000 |title=How Did Tibetan Buddhism Develop? |url=http://studybuddhism.com/en/advanced-studies/history-culture/buddhism-in-tibet/how-did-tibetan-buddhism-develop |website=StudyBuddhism.com}}</ref> Padmasambhava, who is considered by the Tibetans as Guru Rinpoche ("Precious Master"), is also credited with building the first monastery building named "Samye" around the late 8th century. According to some legend, it is noted that he pacified the Bon demons and made them the core protectors of Dharma.<ref>{{cite web |title=How Buddhism Came to Tibet |url=https://www.learnreligions.com/how-buddhism-came-to-tibet-450177 |website=Learn Religion |access-date=13 April 2022}}</ref> Modern historians also argue that Trisong Detsen and his followers adopted Buddhism as an act of international diplomacy, especially with the major power of those times such as China, India, and states in Central Asia that had strong Buddhist influence in their culture.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Van Schaik |first1=Sam |title=Buddhism and Empire IV: Converting Tibet |url=https://earlytibet.com/2009/07/01/buddhism-and-empire-iv-converting-tibet/ |website=Early Tibet |date=July 2009 |access-date=13 April 2022}}</ref> [[Yeshe Tsogyal]], the most important female in the Nyingma Vajrayana lineage, was a member of Trisong Detsen's court and became Padmasambhava's student before gaining enlightenment. Trisong Detsen also invited the [[Chinese Chán|Chan]] master [[Moheyan]]{{efn|和尚摩訶衍; his name consists of the same Chinese characters used to transliterate "[[Mahayana]]" (Tibetan: ''Hwa shang Mahayana'')}} to transmit the Dharma at [[Samye|Samye Monastery]]. Some sources state that a debate ensued between Moheyan and the Indian master [[Kamalaśīla]], without consensus on the victor, and some scholars consider the event to be fictitious.<ref>[http://yzzj.fodian.net/BaoKu/FoDianWenInfo.aspx?ID=FW00000462 定解宝灯论新月释] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131102032603/http://yzzj.fodian.net/BaoKu/FoDianWenInfo.aspx?ID=FW00000462 |date=2013-11-02 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |last=Yamaguchi |first=Zuihō |date=n.d. |title=The Core Elements of Indian Buddhism Introduced into Tibet: A Contrast with Japanese Buddhism |url=http://thezensite.com/ZenEssays/Miscellaneous/Indian_buddhism.pdf |website=Thezensite.com |access-date=October 20, 2007}}</ref>{{efn|Kamalaśīla wrote the three [[Bhāvanākrama]] texts (修習次第三篇) after that.}}{{efn|However, a Chinese source found in [[Dunhuang]] written by Mo-ho-yen says their side won, and some scholars conclude that the entire episode is fictitious.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://hk.plm.org.cn/qikan/xdfx/5012-012A.htm |title=敦煌唐代写本顿悟大乘正理决 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131101202452/http://hk.plm.org.cn/qikan/xdfx/5012-012A.htm |archive-date=2013-11-01 }}</ref><ref>{{cite book |publisher=Macmillan |title=Encyclopedia of Buddhism |volume=1 |page=70}}</ref>}} ===Era of fragmentation (9th–10th centuries)=== A reversal in Buddhist influence began under King [[Langdarma]] (r. 836–842), and his death was followed by the so-called ''[[Era of Fragmentation]]'', a period of disunity during the 9th and 10th centuries. During this era, the political centralization of the earlier Tibetan Empire collapsed and civil wars ensued.{{sfnp|Shakabpa|1967|pp=53, 173}} In spite of this loss of state power and patronage however, Buddhism survived and thrived in Tibet. According to [[Geoffrey Samuel]] this was because "Tantric (Vajrayana) Buddhism came to provide the principal set of techniques by which Tibetans dealt with the dangerous powers of the spirit world [...] Buddhism, in the form of Vajrayana ritual, provided a critical set of techniques for dealing with everyday life. Tibetans came to see these techniques as vital for their survival and prosperity in this life."{{sfnp|Samuel|2012|p=10}} This includes dealing with the local gods and spirits (''sadak'' and ''shipdak),'' which became a specialty of some Tibetan Buddhist lamas and [[ngagpa]]s (''mantrikas'', mantra specialists).{{sfnp|Samuel|2012|pp=12–13,32}} ===Second dissemination (10th–12th centuries)=== {{multiple image | align = left | direction = vertical | width = 200 | image1 = Atisha.jpg | caption1 = The Indian master Atiśa | image2 = Lotsawa Marpa Chokyi Lodro.jpg | caption2 = The Tibetan householder and translator [[Marpa Lotsawa|Marpa]] (1012–1097) }} The late 10th and 11th centuries saw a revival of Buddhism in Tibet with the founding of "New Translation" ([[Sarma (Tibetan Buddhism)|''Sarma'']]) lineages as well as the appearance of "[[Terma (religion)|hidden treasures]]" (''terma'') literature which reshaped the [[Nyingma]] tradition.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://studybuddhism.com/en/advanced-studies/history-culture/buddhism-in-tibet/how-did-tibetan-buddhism-develop|title=How Did Tibetan Buddhism Develop?|website=studybuddhism.com}}</ref>{{sfnp|Conze|1993|pp=104ff}} In 1042 the Bengali saint, [[Atisha|Atiśa]] (982–1054) arrived in Tibet at the invitation of a west Tibetan king and further aided dissemination of Buddhist values in Tibetan culture and in consequential affairs of state. His erudition supported the translation of major Buddhist texts, which evolved into the canons of Bka'-'gyur (Translation of the Buddha Word) and Bstan-'gyur (Translation of Teachings). The ''Bka'-'gyur'' has six main categories: (1) [[Tantra]], (2) [[Prajnaparamita|Prajñāpāramitā]], (3) [[Ratnakuta-sutra|Ratnakūṭa Sūtra]], (4) [[Avatamsaka Sutra|Avataṃsaka Sūtra]], (5) Other sutras, and (6) [[Vinaya]]. The ''Bstan-'gyur'' comprises 3,626 texts and 224 volumes on such things as hymns, commentaries and suppplementary tantric material. Atiśa's chief disciple, [[Dromtön]] founded the [[Kadampa]] school of Tibetan Buddhism, one of the first Sarma schools.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Dickson |first=Alnis |others=Lara E. Braitstein |title=Organizing religion: situating the three-vow texts of the Tibetan Buddhist renaissance |url=https://escholarship.mcgill.ca/concern/theses/1j92g801p |access-date=2024-08-31 |website=escholarship.mcgill.ca}}</ref> The [[Sakya (Tibetan Buddhist school)|Sakya]] (''Grey Earth'') school, was founded by [[Khön Könchok Gyalpo|Khön Könchok Gyelpo]] (1034–1102), a disciple of the great [[Lotsawa|scholar]], Drogmi Shākya. It is headed by the [[Sakya Trizin]], and traces its lineage to the [[mahasiddha]] [[Virupa|Virūpa]].<ref name="StudyBuddhism.com"/> Other influential Indian teachers include [[Tilopa]] (988–1069) and his student [[Naropa|Nāropā]] (probably died ca. 1040). Their teachings, via their student [[Marpa Lotsawa|Marpa]], are the foundations of the [[Kagyu]] (''Oral lineage'') tradition'','' which focuses on the practices of [[Mahamudra|Mahāmudrā]] and the [[Six Dharmas of Naropa|Six Dharmas of Nāropā]]. One of the most famous Kagyu figures was the hermit [[Milarepa]], an 11th-century mystic. The [[Dagpo Kagyu]] was founded by the monk [[Gampopa]] who merged Marpa's lineage teachings with the monastic Kadam tradition.<ref name="StudyBuddhism.com" /> All the sub-schools of the Kagyu tradition of Tibetan Buddhism surviving today, including the Drikung Kagyu, the Drukpa Kagyu and the Karma Kagyu, are branches of the Dagpo Kagyu. The Karma Kagyu school is the largest of the Kagyu sub-schools and is headed by the [[Karmapa]].<ref>{{cite book |last1=Olderr |first1=Steven |title=Dictionary of World Monasticism |date=2020 |publisher=McFarland |isbn=978-1476683096 |page=101}}</ref> ===Mongol dominance (13th–14th centuries)=== {{Main|Tibet under Yuan rule}} Tibetan Buddhism exerted a strong influence from the 11th century CE among the peoples of [[Inner Asia]], especially the [[Mongols]], and Tibetan and [[Buddhism in Mongolia|Mongolian Buddhism]] influenced each other. This was done with the help of [[Kublai Khan]] and Mongolian [[Theology|theologians]] influenced by the [[Church of the East]].<ref>{{Cite web |last=Jenott |first=Lance |date=2002-05-07 |title=The Eastern (Nestorian) Church |url=https://depts.washington.edu/silkroad/exhibit/religion/nestorians/nestorians.html |access-date=2023-03-01 |website=Silk Road Seattle |publisher=[[University of Washington]]}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Nestorians |url=https://www.biblicalcyclopedia.com/N/nestorians.html |access-date=2023-03-01 |website=[[Cyclopædia of Biblical, Theological and Ecclesiastical Literature|McClintock and Strong Biblical Cyclopedia Online]] |publisher=[[SwordSearcher|StudyLamp Software]] |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Chua |first=Amy |url=https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/123079516 |title=Day of Empire: How Hyperpowers Rise to Global Dominance–and Why They Fall |publisher=[[Doubleday (publisher)|Doubleday]] |year=2007 |isbn=978-0-385-51284-8 |edition=1st |location=[[New York City|New York]] |pages=116–119, 121 |oclc=123079516 |author-link=Amy Chua}}</ref> The [[Mongol invasions of Tibet|Mongols invaded Tibet]] in 1240 and 1244.{{sfnp|Shakabpa|1967|p=61|ps=: 'thirty thousand troops, under the command of Leje and Dorta, reached Phanpo, north of Lhasa.'}}{{sfnp|Sanders|2003|p=309|ps=: ''his grandson Godan Khan invaded Tibet with 30000 men and destroyed several Buddhist monasteries north of Lhasa''}}{{sfnp|Buell|2011|p=194}}{{sfnp|Shakabpa|1967|pp=61–62}} They eventually annexed [[Amdo]] and [[Kham]] and appointed the great scholar and abbot [[Sakya Pandita]] (1182–1251) as Viceroy of Central Tibet in 1249.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://gwydionwilliams.com/42-china/tibet/how-tibet-emerged-within-the-chinese-empire/|title=How Tibet Emerged Within the Wider Chinese Power-Political Zone|date=2015-04-18|work=Long Revolution|access-date=2018-03-23|language=en-US}}</ref> In this way, Tibet was incorporated into the [[Mongol Empire]], with the Sakya hierarchy retaining nominal power over religious and regional political affairs, while the Mongols retained structural and administrative{{sfnp|Wylie|1990|p=104}} rule over the region, reinforced by the rare military intervention. Tibetan Buddhism was adopted as the ''de facto'' [[state religion]] by the Mongol [[Yuan dynasty]] (1271–1368) of [[Kublai Khan]].<ref name="Huntington_et_al"/> It was also during this period that the [[Tibetan Buddhist canon]] was compiled, primarily led by the efforts of the scholar [[Buton Rinchen Drub|Butön Rinchen Drup]] (1290–1364). A part of this project included the carving of the canon into [[Woodblock printing|wood blocks for printing]], and the first copies of these texts were kept at [[Narthang Monastery|Narthang monastery]].{{sfnp|Powers|2007|p=162}} Tibetan Buddhism in China was also [[Syncretism|syncretized]] with [[Chinese Buddhism]] and [[Chinese folk religion]].<ref>{{Cite book |last=Wood |first=Michael |title=The Story of China: The Epic History of a World Power from the Middle Kingdom to Mao and the China Dream |publisher=[[St. Martin's Press]] |year=2020 |isbn=978-1-250-20257-4 |edition=First U.S. |location=New York |pages=363 |author-link=Michael Wood (historian)}}</ref> ===From family rule to Ganden Phodrang government (14th–18th centuries)=== [[File:Potala palace21.jpg|right|thumb|The [[Potala Palace]] in Lhasa, chief residence and political center of the [[Dalai Lama]]s. ]] With the decline and end of the Mongol Yuan dynasty, Tibet regained independence and was ruled by successive local families from the 14th to the 17th century.{{sfnp|Rossabi|1983|p=194}} [[Tai Situ Changchub Gyaltsen|Jangchub Gyaltsän]] (1302–1364) became the strongest political family in the mid 14th century.<ref>{{cite book |last=Petech |first=L. |title=Central Tibet and The Mongols |series=Serie Orientale Roma |volume=65 |place=Rome |publisher=Instituto Italiano per il Medio ed Estremo Oriente |year=1990 |pages=85–143}}</ref> During this period the reformist scholar [[Je Tsongkhapa]] (1357–1419) founded the [[Gelug]] school which would have a decisive influence on Tibet's history. The [[Ganden Tripa]] is the nominal head of the Gelug school, though its most influential figure is the Dalai Lama. The Ganden Tripa is an appointed office and not a reincarnation lineage. The position can be held by an individual for seven years and this has led to more Ganden Tripas than Dalai Lamas.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Berzin |first1=Alexander |title=Gelug Monasteries: Ganden |url=http://studybuddhism.com/en/advanced-studies/history-culture/monasteries-in-tibet/gelug-monasteries-ganden |website=Study Buddhism |access-date=13 April 2022}}</ref> Internal strife within the [[Phagmodrupa dynasty]], and the strong localism of the various fiefs and political-religious factions, led to a long series of internal conflicts. The minister family [[Rinpungpa]], based in [[Ü-Tsang|Tsang]] (West Central Tibet), dominated politics after 1435.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Czaja |first=Olaf |date=2013-09-17 |title=On the History of Refining Mercury in Tibetan Medicine |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1163/15734218-12341290 |journal=Asian Medicine |volume=8 |issue=1 |pages=75–105 |doi=10.1163/15734218-12341290 |issn=1573-420X}}</ref> In 1565, the Rinpungpa family was overthrown by the [[Tsangpa]] Dynasty of [[Shigatse]], which expanded its power in different directions of Tibet in the following decades and favoured the [[Karma Kagyu]] sect. They would play a pivotal role in the events which led to the rise of power of the Dalai Lama's in the 1640s.{{Citation needed|date=December 2023}} {{See also|Ming–Tibet relations}} In China, Tibetan Buddhism continued to be patronized by the elites of the Ming Dynasty. According to [[David M. Robinson]], during this era, Tibetan Buddhist monks "conducted court rituals, enjoyed privileged status and gained access to the jealously guarded, private world of the emperors".<ref>{{cite book |last=Robinson |first=David M. |year=2008 |chapter-url=http://www.history.ubc.ca/sites/default/files/documents/readings/robinson_culture_courtiers_ch.8.pdf |chapter=The Ming Court and the Legacy of the Yuan Mongols |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161006082912/http://www.history.ubc.ca/sites/default/files/documents/readings/robinson_culture_courtiers_ch.8.pdf |archive-date=2016-10-06 |title=Culture, Courtiers and Competition, The Ming Court (1368–1644)}}</ref> The Ming [[Yongle Emperor]] (r. 1402–1424) promoted the carving of printing blocks for the [[Kangyur]], now known as "the Yongle Kanjur", and seen as an important edition of the collection.<ref>Silk, Jonathan. ''Notes on the history of the Yongle Kanjur.'' Indica et Tibetica 28, Suhrllekhah. Festgabe für Helmut Eimer, 1998.</ref> The Ming Dynasty also supported the propagation of Tibetan Buddhism in Mongolia during this period. Tibetan Buddhist missionaries also helped spread the religion in Mongolia. It was during this era that [[Altan Khan]] the leader of the [[Tümed]] Mongols, converted to Buddhism, and allied with the Gelug school, conferring the title of Dalai Lama to [[3rd Dalai Lama|Sonam Gyatso]] in 1578.<ref>{{cite book |first=Patrick |last=Taveirne |year=2004 |title=Han-Mongol Encounters and Missionary Endeavors: A History of Scheut in Ordos (Hetao) 1874–1911 |publisher=Leuven University Press |pages=67ff |isbn=978-90-5867-365-7}}</ref> During a Tibetan civil war in the 17th century, [[Sonam Choephel]] (1595–1657 CE), the chief regent of the [[5th Dalai Lama]], conquered and unified Tibet to establish the ''[[Ganden Phodrang]]'' government with the help of the [[Güshi Khan]] of the [[Khoshut Khanate|Khoshut Mongols]]. The ''Ganden Phodrang'' and the successive Gelug [[tulku]] lineages of the Dalai Lamas and [[Panchen Lama]]s maintained regional control of [[Tibet]] from the mid-17th to mid-20th centuries.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Dudeja |first=Jai Paul |title=Profound Meditation Practices in Tibetan Buddhism |publisher=Bluerose Publisher Pvt. Ltd.|date=2023 |page=5 |isbn=978-93-5741-206-3 }}</ref> ===Qing rule (18th–20th centuries)=== [[File:Dongcheng, Beijing, China - panoramio (82).jpg|right|thumb|[[Yonghe Temple]], a temple of the Gelug tradition in [[Beijing]] established in the Qing Dynasty.]] The [[Qing dynasty]] (1644–1912) established a Chinese rule over Tibet after a [[Chinese expedition to Tibet (1720)|Qing expeditionary force]] defeated the [[Dzungar people|Dzungars]] (who controlled Tibet) in 1720, and lasted until the fall of the Qing dynasty in 1912.<ref>{{cite book |title=Emblems of Empire: Selections from the Mactaggart Art Collection |first1=John E. |last1=Vollmer |first2=Jacqueline |last2=Simcox |page=154}}</ref> The [[Manchu people|Manchu]] rulers of the Qing dynasty supported Tibetan Buddhism, especially the [[Gelug]] sect, during most of their rule.<ref name="Huntington_et_al">{{cite book |title=The Circle of Bliss: Buddhist Meditational Art |first1=John C. |last1=Huntington |first2=Dina |last2=Bangdel |first3=Robert A. F. |last3=Thurman |page=48}}</ref> The reign of the [[Qianlong Emperor]] (respected as the [[Emperor Manjushri]]) was the high mark for this promotion of Tibetan Buddhism in China, with the visit of the [[Lobsang Palden Yeshe, 6th Panchen Lama|6th Panchen Lama]] to Beijing, and the building of temples in the Tibetan style, such as [[Xumi Fushou Temple]], the [[Puning Temple (Hebei)|Puning Temple]] and [[Putuo Zongcheng Temple]] (modeled after the potala palace).<ref>{{cite book |last=Weidner |first=Marsha Smith |title=Cultural Intersections in Later Chinese Buddhism |pages=173}}{{full citation needed|date=March 2024}}</ref> This period also saw the rise of the [[Rimé movement]], a 19th-century nonsectarian movement involving the [[Sakya (Tibetan Buddhist school)|Sakya]], [[Kagyu]] and [[Nyingma]] schools of Tibetan Buddhism, along with some [[Bon]] scholars.<ref name="Lopez, Donald S. 1998 p. 190">{{cite book |last=Lopez |first=Donald S. |year=1998 |title=Prisoners of Shangri-La: Tibetan Buddhism and the West |place=Chicago |publisher=University of Chicago Press |page=190}}</ref> Having seen how the [[Gelug]] institutions pushed the other traditions into the corners of Tibet's cultural life, scholars such as [[Jamyang Khyentse Wangpo]] (1820–1892) and [[Jamgon Kongtrul|Jamgön Kongtrül]] (1813–1899) compiled together the teachings of the [[Sakya (Tibetan Buddhist school)|Sakya]], [[Kagyu]] and [[Nyingma]], including many near-extinct teachings.{{sfnp|Van Schaik|2011|pp=165-169}} Without Khyentse and Kongtrul's collecting and printing of rare works, the suppression of Buddhism by the Communists would have been much more final.{{sfnp|Van Schaik|2011|p=169}} The Rimé movement is responsible for a number of scriptural compilations, such as the ''[[Nyingma#Rinchen Terdzod|Rinchen Terdzod]]'' and the ''[[Sheja Dzö]]''.<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Buswell |first1=R.E. |title=The Princeton Dictionary of Buddhism |last2=Lopez |first2=D.S. |last3=Ahn |first3=J. |collaboration=et al. |publisher=Princeton University Press |year=2014 |isbn=9780691157863 |pages=379, 714-715, 802 |language=en}}</ref> During the Qing, Tibetan Buddhism also remained the major religion of the [[Mongolia under Qing rule|Mongols under Qing rule]] (1635–1912), as well as the state religion of the [[Kalmyk Khanate]] (1630–1771), the [[Dzungar Khanate]] (1634–1758) and the [[Khoshut Khanate]] (1642–1717).{{Citation needed|date=December 2023}} ===20th century=== [[File:1913 in Khuree.jpg|thumb|[[Autochrome]] photo of [[Gandantegchinlen Monastery]] in 1913, [[Ulaanbaatar]], Mongolia]] In 1912, following the fall of the Qing Dynasty, Tibet became de facto independent under the 13th [[Dalai Lama]] government based in [[Lhasa]], maintaining the current territory of what is now called the [[Tibetan Autonomous Region]].<ref name="Kapstein, Matthew T. 2014, p. 100">{{harvp|Kapstein|2014|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=sTZLAAAAQBAJ&pg=PA100 100].}}</ref> During the [[Republic of China (1912–1949)]], the "Chinese Tantric Buddhist Revival Movement" ({{zh|c=密教復興運動}}) took place, and important figures such as [[Nenghai]] ({{Lang|zh|能海喇嘛}}, 1886–1967) and Master Fazun ({{Lang|zh|法尊}}, 1902–1980) promoted Tibetan Buddhism and translated Tibetan works into Chinese.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Bianchi |first=Ester |title=The Tantric Rebirth Movement in Modern China, Esoteric Buddhism re-vivified by the Japanese and Tibetan traditions |journal=Acta Orientalia Academiae Scientiarum Hung |volume=57 |number=1 |pages=31–54 |date=2004|doi=10.1556/AOrient.57.2004.1.3 |url=https://real.mtak.hu/46312/1/aorient.57.2004.1.3.pdf }}</ref> This movement was severely damaged during the [[Cultural Revolution]], however.{{Citation needed|date=December 2023}} After the [[Battle of Chamdo]], Tibet was annexed by [[China]] in 1950. In 1959 the [[14th Dalai Lama]] and a great number of clergy and citizenry fled the country, to settle in India and other neighbouring countries. The events of the [[Cultural Revolution]] (1966–76) saw religion as one of the main political targets of the [[Chinese Communist Party]], and most of the several thousand temples and monasteries in Tibet were destroyed, with many monks and lamas imprisoned.<ref name="Kapstein 108">{{harvp|Kapstein|2014|p=108}}.</ref> During this time, private religious expression, as well as Tibetan cultural traditions, were suppressed. Much of the Tibetan textual heritage and institutions were destroyed, and monks and nuns were forced to disrobe.<ref>{{Cite book|title=Religions in the Modern World|last1=Cantwell|first1=Cathy|last2=Kawanami|first2=Hiroko|publisher=Routledge|year=2016|isbn=978-0-415-85881-6|edition=3rd|location=New York|pages=91}}</ref> Outside of Tibet, however, there has been a renewed interest in Tibetan Buddhism in places such as Nepal and Bhutan.<ref>{{Cite news |date=2023-05-24 |title=Opinion {{!}} Nepal is the birthplace of Buddhism |language=en-US |newspaper=Washington Post |url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/opinions/nepal-is-the-birthplace-of-buddhism/2017/01/27/cc17a5f2-e2a4-11e6-a419-eefe8eff0835_story.html |access-date=2023-12-02 |issn=0190-8286}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last=Marks |first=Thomas A. |date=1977 |title=Historical Observations on Buddhism in Bhutan |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/43299858 |journal=The Tibet Journal |volume=2 |issue=2 |pages=74–91 |jstor=43299858 |issn=0970-5368}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Bhutan's Religious History in a Thousand Words {{!}} Mandala Collections - Texts |url=https://texts.mandala.library.virginia.edu/text/bhutans-religious-history-thousand-words |access-date=2023-12-02 |website=texts.mandala.library.virginia.edu}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=A Brief Historical Background of the Religious Institutions of Bhutan |url=https://buddhism.lib.ntu.edu.tw/FULLTEXT/JR-BH/bh117506.htm |access-date=2023-12-02 |website=buddhism.lib.ntu.edu.tw}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Bhutan |url=https://www.state.gov/reports/2022-report-on-international-religious-freedom/bhutan/ |access-date=2023-12-02 |website=United States Department of State |language=en-US}}</ref> Meanwhile, the spread of Tibetan Buddhism in the Western world was accomplished by many of the refugee Tibetan Lamas who escaped Tibet,<ref name="Kapstein 108" /> such as [[Akong Rinpoche]] and [[Chögyam Trungpa]] who in 1967 were founders of [[Kagyu Samye Ling]] the first Tibetan Buddhist Centre to be established in the West.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.samyeling.org/about/a-brief-history-of-kagyu-samye-ling/|title=A Brief History of Kagyu Samye Ling | SamyeLing.org|website=www.samyeling.org}}</ref> After the liberalization policies in China during the 1980s, the religion began to recover with some temples and monasteries being reconstructed.<ref name="Kapstein 110">{{harvp|Kapstein|2014|p=110}}.</ref> Tibetan Buddhism is now an influential religion in China, Taiwan, Hong Kong, and overseas Chinese communities.<ref name="Kapstein 110"/> However, the Chinese government retains strict control over Tibetan Buddhist Institutions in the [[China|PRC]]. Quotas on the number of monks and nuns are maintained, and their activities are closely supervised.{{sfnp|Samuel|2012|p=238}} Within the Tibetan Autonomous Region, violence against Buddhists has been escalating since 2008.<ref>{{cite report|publisher=Freedom House|title=Freedom In The World 2020: Tibet|url=https://freedomhouse.org/country/tibet/freedom-world/2020}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|website=International Campaign for Tibet|url=https://savetibet.org/why-tibet/self-immolations-by-tibetans/|title=Self-Immolations}}</ref> Widespread reports document the arrests and disappearances<ref>{{cite web|website=Central Tibetan Administration|date=5 October 2019|url=https://tibet.net/monk-from-tibets-amdo-ngaba-arrested-over-social-media-posts-on-tibetan-language/|title=Monk from Tibet's Amdo Ngaba arrested over social media posts on Tibetan Language}}</ref> of nuns and monks, while the Chinese government classifies religious practices as "gang crime".<ref>{{cite web|website=Human Rights Watch|date=14 May 2020|url=https://www.hrw.org/news/2020/05/14/china-tibet-anti-crime-campaign-silences-dissent|title=China: Tibet Anti-Crime Campaign Silences Dissent}}</ref> Reports include the demolition of monasteries, forced disrobing, forced reeducation, and detentions of nuns and monks, especially those residing at [[Yarchen Gar]]'s center, the most highly publicized.<ref>{{cite web|website=Free Tibet|date=8 July 2019|url=https://www.freetibet.org/news-media/na/further-evictions-and-repression-yarchen-gar|title=Further Evictions and Repression at Yarchen Gar}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|first=Craig|last=Lewis|website=The Buddhist Door|date=6 September 2019|url=https://www.buddhistdoor.net/news/new-images-reveal-extent-of-demolitions-at-yarchen-gar-buddhist-monastery|title=New Images Reveal Extent of Demolitions at Yarchen Gar Buddhist Monastery}}</ref> ===21st century=== [[File:President Barack Obama greets His Holiness the Dalai Lama (27591124962).jpg|thumb|The [[14th Dalai Lama]] meeting with U.S. President [[Barack Obama]] in 2016. Due to his widespread popularity, the Dalai Lama has become the modern international face of Tibetan Buddhism.{{sfnp|Kapstein|2014|p=109}}]] Today, Tibetan Buddhism is adhered to widely in the [[Tibetan Plateau]], [[Mongolia]], northern [[Nepal]], [[Kalmykia]] (on the north-west shore of the Caspian), [[Siberia]] ([[Tuva]] and [[Republic of Buryatia|Buryatia]]), the [[Russian Far East]] and northeast China. It is the [[state religion]] of [[Buddhism in Bhutan|Bhutan]].<ref>The 2007 U.S. State Department report on religious freedom in Bhutan notes that "Mahayana Buddhism is the state religion..." and that the Bhutanese government supports both the Kagyu and Nyingma sects. [https://2001-2009.state.gov/g/drl/rls/irf/2007/90227.htm State.gov]</ref> The Indian regions of [[Sikkim]] and [[Ladakh]], both formerly independent kingdoms, are also home to significant Tibetan Buddhist populations, as are the Indian states of [[Himachal Pradesh]] (which includes [[Dharamshala]] and the district of Lahaul-Spiti), [[West Bengal]] (the hill stations of [[Darjeeling]] and [[Kalimpong]]) and [[Arunachal Pradesh]]. Religious communities, refugee centers and monasteries have also been established in [[South India]].{{sfnp|Samuel|2012|p=240}} The 14th Dalai Lama is the leader of the [[Tibetan government-in-exile|Tibetan government in exile]] which was initially dominated by the Gelug school, however, according to Geoffrey Samuel:<blockquote>The Dharamsala administration under the Dalai Lama has nevertheless managed, over time, to create a relatively inclusive and democratic structure that has received broad support across the Tibetan communities in exile. Senior figures from the three non-Gelukpa Buddhist schools and from the Bonpo have been included in the religious administration, and relations between the different lamas and schools are now on the whole very positive. This is a considerable achievement, since the relations between these groups were often competitive and conflict-ridden in Tibet before 1959, and mutual distrust was initially widespread. The Dalai Lama's government at Dharamsala has also continued under difficult circumstances to argue for a negotiated settlement rather than armed struggle with China.{{sfnp|Samuel|2012|p=240}}</blockquote> [[File:Kagyu Dzong.jpg|thumb|[[Kagyu-Dzong]] Buddhist center in [[Paris]].]] In the wake of the [[Tibetan diaspora]], Tibetan Buddhism has also gained adherents in [[Western world|the West]] and throughout the world. Tibetan Buddhist monasteries and centers were first established in [[Europe]] and [[North America]] in the 1960s, and most are now supported by non-Tibetan followers of Tibetan lamas. Some of these westerners went on to learn Tibetan, undertake extensive training in the traditional practices and have been recognized as lamas.{{sfnp|Samuel|2012|pp=242–243}} Fully ordained Tibetan Buddhist Monks have also entered Western societies in other ways, such as working academia.<ref>[http://eview.anu.edu.au/one_world/index.php Bruce A (ed). One World – Many Paths to Peace ANU E-Press 2009 (launched by the 14th Dalai Lama)] (accessed 11 May 2013)</ref> Samuel sees the character of Tibetan Buddhism in the West as {{blockquote|...that of a national or international network, generally centred around the teachings of a single individual lama. Among the larger ones are the FPMT, which I have already mentioned, now headed by [[Lama Zopa]] and the child-reincarnation of [[Lama Yeshe]]; the New Kadampa, in origin a break-away from the [[FPMT]]; the [[Shambhala Training|Shambhala Buddhist network]], deriving from [[Chögyam Trungpa]]'s organization and now headed by his son; and the networks associated with [[Namkhai Norbu]] Rinpoche (the Dzogchen Community) and [[Sogyal Rinpoche]] (Rigpa).<ref>{{cite book |last=Samuel |first=Geoffrey |title=Tantric Revisionings: New Understandings of Tibetan Buddhism and Indian Religion |pages=303–304}}{{full citation needed|date=March 2024}}</ref>}}
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