Editing Three Kingdoms (section)

==Prelude==
{{See also|Military history of the Three Kingdoms}}

===Yellow Turban Rebellion===
{{main|Yellow Turban Rebellion}}
[[File:Han provinces.jpg|thumb|Map of Chinese provinces on the eve of Three Kingdoms period, 189 AD]]
[[File:Yellow Turban Rebellion.jpg|thumb|Map showing the Yellow Turban Rebellion]]
The power of the Eastern [[Han dynasty]] had steadily declined owing to a variety of political and economic problems after the death of [[Emperor He of Han|Emperor He]] in 105 AD. A series of Han emperors ascended the throne while still youths, and ''[[de facto]]'' imperial power often rested with the emperors' older relatives. As these relatives occasionally were loath to give up their influence, emperors would, upon reaching maturity, be forced to rely on political alliances with senior officials and [[eunuch]]s to achieve control of the government. Political posturing and infighting between imperial relatives and eunuch officials were a constant problem in the Chinese government at the time.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Theobald |first1=Ulrich |date=28 June 2011 |title=The Yellow Turban Uprising |url=http://www.chinaknowledge.de/History/Terms/huangjin.html |access-date=7 March 2015 |website=Chinaknowledge}}</ref>{{better source needed|date=April 2024}} During the reigns of [[Emperor Huan]] ({{reign|146|168}}) and [[Emperor Ling of Han|Emperor Ling]] ({{reign|168|189}}), leading officials' dissatisfaction with the eunuchs' usurpation of power reached a peak, and many began to openly protest against them. The first and second protests met with failure, and the court eunuchs persuaded the emperor to execute many of the protesting scholars. Some local rulers seized the opportunity to exert despotic control over their lands and citizens, since many feared to speak out in the oppressive political climate. Emperors Huan and Ling's reigns were recorded as particularly dark periods of Han dynasty rule. In addition to political oppression and mismanagement, China experienced a number of natural disasters during this period, and local rebellions sprung up throughout the country.

In the third month of 184, [[Zhang Jiao]], leader of the Way of Supreme Peace, a [[Taoist]] movement, along with his two brothers Zhang Liang and Zhang Bao, led the movement's followers in a rebellion against the government that was called the [[Yellow Turban Rebellion]]. Their movement quickly attracted followers and soon numbered several hundred thousand and received support from many parts of China. They had 36 bases throughout China, with large bases having 10,000 or more followers and minor bases having 6,000 to 7,000, similar to Han armies. Their motto was: <blockquote>"The Grey Sky{{refn|group=lower-alpha|Referring to the Han dynasty government; the word 蒼, here glossed as ''grey'', is specifically the colour of an old person's hair, alluding to the decrepit state of the Han}} has perished, the Yellow Sky{{refn|group=lower-alpha|Referring to the Yellow Turban Rebellion}} will soon rise; in this year of ''[[Chinese calendar|jiazi]]'',{{refn|group=lower-alpha|''Jiazi'' is the first step of the sexagenary cycle, signifying a new beginning}} let there be prosperity in the world!"<br />({{lang|zh-hant|蒼天已死，黃天當立。歲在甲子，天下大吉。}}){{refn|group=lower-alpha|''[[Book of Han]]'' – ''Record of Emperor Xiaoling'' and the ''[[Zizhi Tongjian]]'' -''Guanghe Year 6'' record that Zhang Jiao declared himself Yellow Emperor and took their movement's name from a headscarf worn by followers [yellow signifying the Yellow Emperor and imperial authority].}}</blockquote> Emperor Ling dispatched generals [[Huangfu Song]], [[Lu Zhi (Han dynasty)|Lu Zhi]], and [[Zhu Jun (Han dynasty)|Zhu Jun]] to lead the Han armies against the rebels, and decreed that local governments had to supply soldiers to assist in their efforts. The Yellow Turbans were ultimately defeated and its surviving followers dispersed throughout China, but due to the turbulent situation throughout the empire, many were able to survive as bandits in mountainous areas, thus continuing their ability to contribute to the turmoil of the era.

With the widespread increase in bandits across the Chinese nation, the Han army had no way to repel each and every raiding party. In 188, Emperor Ling accepted a memorial from [[Liu Yan (Han dynasty warlord)|Liu Yan]] suggesting he grant direct administrative power over feudal provinces and direct command of regional military to local governors, as well as promoting them in rank and filling such positions with members of the Liu family or court officials. This move made [[Zhou (country subdivision)|provinces]] (''zhou'') official administrative units, and although they had power to combat rebellions, the later intra-governmental chaos allowed these local governors to easily rule independently of the central government. Liu Yan was also promoted as governor of [[Yi Province]] (roughly covering the [[Sichuan Basin]]). Soon after this move, Liu Yan severed all of his region's ties to the Han imperial court, and several other areas followed suit.

===Dong Zhuo in power===
In the same year, Emperor Ling died, and another struggle began between the court eunuchs for control of the imperial family. Court eunuch [[Jian Shuo]] planned to kill Regent Marshal [[He Jin]], a relative of the imperial family, and to replace the crown prince [[Liu Bian]] with his younger brother [[Emperor Xian of Han|Liu Xie]], the Prince of Chenliu (present-day [[Kaifeng]]), though his plan was unsuccessful. Liu Bian took the Han throne as Emperor Shao, and He Jin plotted with warlord [[Yuan Shao]] to assassinate the [[Ten Attendants]], a clique of twelve eunuchs led by [[Zhang Rang]] who controlled much of the imperial court. He Jin also ordered [[Dong Zhuo]], the frontier general in Liang Province, and [[Ding Yuan]], Inspector of Bing Province,{{refn|group=lower-alpha|The area between present-day [[Baoding]] and [[Taiyuan]]}} to bring troops to the capital to reinforce his position of authority. The eunuchs learned of He Jin's plot, and had him assassinated before Dong Zhuo reached the capital [[Luoyang]]. When Yuan Shao's troops reached Luoyang, they stormed the palace complex, killing the Ten Attendants and 2,000 of the eunuchs' supporters. Though this move effectively ended the century-long feud between the eunuchs and the imperial family, this event prompted the invitation of Dong Zhuo to the outskirts of Luoyang from the northwest boundary of China.

On the evening of 24 September 189, General Dong Zhuo observed that Luoyang was set ablaze—as a result of a power struggle between the eunuchs and civil service—and commanded his army forward to strike down the disorder. As the emperor had lost any remaining military or political power, Dong Zhuo seized the ''de facto'' control of the government located at Luoyang. On 28 September, Dong Zhuo deposed Liu Bian from the imperial Han throne in favour of Liu Xie. In the following weeks, rebellions broke out throughout all of China.{{sfn|de Crespigny|1991|pp=1–2}}

In East China, in an attempt to restore the power of the Han, a [[Campaign against Dong Zhuo|large coalition against Dong Zhuo]] began to rise, with leaders such as Yuan Shao, Yuan Shu, and Cao Cao. Many provincial officials were compelled to join or risk elimination. In 191, Sun Jian (Yuan Shu's subordinate) led an army against Dong Zhuo and drove him from Luoyang to Chang'an. In the following year, Dong Zhuo's former bodyguard [[Lü Bu]] assassinated Dong Zhuo. It is said that Dong Zhuo's body was thrown into the street with a lit wick in his navel, which supposedly burned with the same brilliance of the sun for a period of four days.{{sfn|de Crespigny|1991|pp=1–3}}<ref>守尸吏暝以為大炷，置卓臍中以為灯，光明達旦，如是積日。 According to the Annal of Heroes, the light from his corpse could be compared to that of the sun!</ref>

=== Collapse of central power ===
{{see also|Mufu}}
In 192, there was some talk among the coalition of appointing [[Liu Yu (warlord)|Liu Yu]], an imperial relative, as emperor, and gradually its members began to fall out. Most of the warlords in the coalition, with a few exceptions, sought the increase of personal military power in the time of instability instead of seriously wishing to restore the Han dynasty's authority. The Han empire was divided between a number of regional warlords. As a result of the complete collapse of the central government and eastern alliance, the [[North China Plain]] fell into warfare and anarchy with many contenders vying for success or survival. [[Emperor Xian]] fell into the hands of various warlords in Chang'an.{{sfn|de Crespigny|1991|p=2}}

Dong Zhuo, confident in his success, was slain by his follower [[Lü Bu]], who plotted with minister [[Wang Yun (Han dynasty)|Wang Yun]]. Lü Bu, in turn, was [[Battle of Chang'an|attacked by Dong Zhuo's former officers]]: [[Li Jue (Han dynasty)|Li Jue]], [[Guo Si]], [[Zhang Ji (Han dynasty)|Zhang Ji]] and [[Fan Chou]]. Wang Yun and his whole family were executed. Lü Bu fled to [[Zhang Yang (warlord)|Zhang Yang]], a northern warlord, and remained with him for a time before briefly joining Yuan Shao, but it was clear that Lü Bu was far too independent to serve another. Yuan Shao operated from [[Ye (Hebei)|Ye]] city in [[Ji Province]], extending his power north of the Yellow River. Han Fu had formerly been the Governor of Ji Province, but he came under the control of Yuan Shao and was replaced by him.{{sfn|de Crespigny|1991|pp=2–3}}

Between the Yellow and Huai rivers, a conflict had erupted between Yuan Shu, [[Cao Cao]], [[Tao Qian (Han dynasty)|Tao Qian]] (Governor of [[Xu Province]]) and Lü Bu. Cao Cao forced the Yellow Turbans to surrender in 192, drove Yuan Shu to the south of the Huai River in 193, inflicted devastation upon Tao Qian in 194, received the surrender of Liu Bei (then a commander under Tao Qian) in 196, and captured and executed Lü Bu in 198. Cao was now in complete control of the southern part of the North China Plain.{{sfn|de Crespigny|1991|pp=2–4}}

In the northeast, [[Gongsun Du]] held control of the [[Liaodong Peninsula]] and its environs, where he had established a state. He was succeeded by his son [[Gongsun Kang]] in 204. In the north across the frontier, the [[Xiongnu|Southern Xiongnu]] vassal state had also collapsed, leading to the dispersion of their tribes and the rise of the [[Xiuchuge]], while the [[Xianbei]] people of the steppe began migrating southward into China. Another Han vassal, the [[Wuhuan]], were also growing in power in the northeast. [[Goguryeo]] was invaded by warlord [[Gongsun Kang]] in 204, resulting in the [[Daifang Commandery]]. In 209, Kang invaded Goguryeo again, took the capital of Goguryeo and forced them to submit. Goguryeo was forced to move its capital further east.{{sfn|de Crespigny|2007|p=988}} In Liang Province (present-day Gansu), [[Liang Province Rebellion|rebellion had erupted in 184]]. In the west, Liu Yan had been Governor of [[Yi Province]] since his appointment in 188. He was succeeded by his son Liu Zhang in 194. Directly north of Liu Zhang's territory, Zhang Lu, leader of the [[Five Pecks of Rice]], led the theocratic government at Hanzhong commandery on the upper Han River. Liu Biao held control over his province as the Governor of Jing Province. Sun Quan held control over the lower Yangtze.{{sfn|de Crespigny|1991|pp=6–8}}

====Xu and Yan provinces====
In 194, Cao Cao went to war with [[Tao Qian (Han dynasty)|Tao Qian]] of Xu Province, because Tao's subordinate Zhang Kai had murdered Cao Cao's father [[Cao Song]]. Tao Qian received the support of [[Liu Bei]] and Gongsun Zan, but even then it seemed as if Cao Cao's superior forces would overrun Xu Province entirely. Cao Cao received word that [[Lü Bu]] had seized Yan Province in his absence, and accordingly he retreated, putting a halt to hostilities with Tao Qian for the time being. Tao Qian died in the same year, leaving his province to Liu Bei. A year later, in 195, Cao Cao managed to drive Lü Bu out of Yan Province. Lü Bu fled to Xu Province and was received by Liu Bei, and an uneasy alliance began between the two.

Afterwards, Lü Bu betrayed Liu Bei and seized Xu Province, forming an alliance with Yuan Shu's remnant forces. Liu Bei, together with his followers [[Guan Yu]] and [[Zhang Fei]], fled to Cao Cao, who accepted him. Soon, preparations were made for an attack on Lü Bu, and the combined forces of Cao Cao and Liu Bei invaded Xu Province. Lü Bu's men deserted him, Yuan Shu's forces never arrived as reinforcements, and he was bound by his own subordinates and executed on Cao Cao's order.

====Huai River====
{{Main|Campaign against Yuan Shu}}
Yuan Shu, after being driven south in 193, established himself at his new capital Shouchun (present-day Anhui). He attempted to regain lost territory north of the Huai River. In 197, Yuan Shu declared himself emperor of his own dynasty. The move was a strategic blunder, as it drew the ire of many warlords across the land, including Yuan Shu's own subordinates who almost all abandoned him. Abandoned by almost all his allies and followers, he perished in 199.{{sfn|de Crespigny|1991|pp=3–4}}

====Emperor Xian's fate====
In August 195, Emperor Xian fled the tyranny of Li Jue at Chang'an and made a year long hazardous journey east in search of supporters. In 196, Emperor Xian came under the protection and control of Cao Cao after he had succeeded in fleeing from the warlords of Chang'an. Establishing the imperial court at [[Xuchang]] in Henan, Cao Cao—who now held the ''de facto'' control—rigorously followed the formalities of the court and justified his actions as a loyal minister of the Han. By then, most of the smaller contenders for power had either been absorbed by larger ones or destroyed. This was an extremely important move for Cao Cao following the suggestion from his primary adviser, [[Xun Yu]], commenting that by supporting the authentic emperor, Cao Cao would have the formal legal authority to control the other warlords and force them to comply in order to restore the Han dynasty.{{sfn|de Crespigny|1991|p=4}}

====North China Plain====
Cao Cao, whose zone of control was the precursor to the state of Cao Wei, had raised an army in 189. In several strategic movements and battles, he controlled Yan Province and defeated several factions of the Yellow Turban rebels. This earned him the aid of other local militaries controlled by [[Zhang Miao (politician)|Zhang Miao]] and [[Chen Gong]], who joined his cause to create his first sizeable army. He continued the effort and absorbed approximately 300,000 Yellow Turban rebels into his army as well as a number of clan-based military groups from the eastern part of Qing Province. Since 192, he developed military agricultural colonies (''[[tuntian]]'') to support his army. Although the system imposed a heavy tax on hired civilian farmers (40% to 60% of agricultural production), the farmers were more than pleased to be able to work with relative stability and professional military protection in a time of chaos. This was later said to be his second important policy for success.

In 200, [[Dong Cheng (Han dynasty)|Dong Cheng]], an imperial relative, received a secret edict from Emperor Xian to assassinate Cao Cao. He collaborated with Liu Bei on this effort, but Cao Cao soon found out about the plot and had Dong Cheng and his conspirators executed, with only Liu Bei surviving and fleeing to join Yuan Shao in the north. After settling the nearby provinces, including a rebellion led by former Yellow Turbans, and internal affairs with the court, Cao Cao turned his attention north to Yuan Shao, who himself had eliminated his northern rival Gongsun Zan that same year. Yuan Shao, himself of higher nobility than Cao Cao, amassed a large army and camped along the northern bank of the Yellow River. In the summer of 200, after months of preparations, the armies of Cao Cao and Yuan Shao clashed at the [[Battle of Guandu]] (near present-day Kaifeng). Cao Cao's army was heavily outnumbered by Yuan Shao. Due to a raid in Yuan's supply train, Yuan's army fell into disorder as they fled back north.{{sfn|de Crespigny|1991|p=4}}

Cao Cao took advantage of Yuan Shao's death in 202, which resulted in division among his sons, and advanced to the north. In 204, after the [[Battle of Ye]], Cao Cao captured the city of [[Ye, China|Ye]]. By the end of 207, after a victorious campaign beyond the frontier against the [[Wuhuan]] culminating in the [[Battle of White Wolf Mountain]], Cao Cao achieved complete dominance of the [[North China Plain]]. He now controlled China's heartland, including Yuan Shao's former territory, and half of the Chinese population.{{sfn|de Crespigny|1991|pp=4, 6}}

====South of the Yangtze====
In 193, Huang Zu led the forces of Liu Biao in a campaign against Sun Jian (Yuan Shu's subordinate general) and killed him. In 194, Sun Ce (aged 18) came into the military service under Yuan Shu. He was given the command of some troops who formerly had been commanded by his late father Sun Jian. In the south, he defeated the warlords of [[Yang Province]], including [[Liu Yao (warlord)|Liu Yao]], [[Wang Lang (Cao Wei)|Wang Lang]], and [[Yan Baihu]].{{sfn|de Crespigny|1991|pp=7–8}}

In 198, Sun Ce (aged 23) declared his independence from Yuan Shu who recently had declared himself emperor. He held control over Danyang, Wu, and [[Kuaiji Commandery|Kuaiji]] commanderies (from present-day [[Nanjing]] to the [[Hangzhou Bay]], and some outposts at the [[Fujian]] coast), while expanding westward in a series of campaigns. By 200, he had conquered Yuzhang commandery (at present-day [[Lake Poyang]] in [[Jiangxi]]) and Lujiang north of the Yangtze. In 200, Sun Ce was ambushed and assassinated by the former retainers of a defeated rival from Wu.{{sfn|de Crespigny|1991|pp=7–8}} At 18, [[Sun Quan]] succeeded him and quickly established his authority. By 203, he was expanding westward. In 208, Sun Quan defeated Huang Zu (Liu Biao's subordinate commander) around present-day Wuhan. He now held control over the territories south of the Yangtze (below Wuhan, Poyang region, and Hangzhou Bay). His navy established local superiority over the Yangtze. Nevertheless, he would soon come under the threat of Cao Cao's larger armies.{{sfn|de Crespigny|1991|p=8}}

====Jing Province====
During Dong Zhuo's reign over the Han government, [[Liu Biao]] had been appointed as the governor of Jing Province. His territory was located around his capital Xiangyang and the territory to the south around the Han and Yangtze River. Beyond his eastern border was the territory of Sun Quan.{{sfn|de Crespigny|1991|p=8}}

In 200, during the time of the campaign around Guandu between Cao Cao and Yuan Shao, Liu Bei's forces had been defeated by a detachment of Cao Cao's army, forcing Liu Bei to flee and seek refuge with Liu Biao in [[Jing Province]]. In this exile, Liu Bei maintained his followers who had accompanied him and made new connections within Liu Biao's entourage. It was during this time that Liu Bei also met Zhuge Liang.{{sfn|de Crespigny|1991|p=21}}

In the autumn of 208, Liu Biao died and was succeeded by his youngest son [[Liu Cong (Han dynasty)|Liu Cong]] over the eldest son [[Liu Qi (Liu Biao's son)|Liu Qi]] through political manoeuvring. Liu Bei had become the head of the opposition to a surrender when Cao Cao's army marched southward to Jing. After the advice of his supporters, Liu Cong surrendered to Cao Cao. Cao Cao took control of the province and began appointing scholars and officials from Liu Biao's court to the local government. Meanwhile, Liu Qi had joined Liu Bei to establish a line of defence at the Yangtze River against the surrender to Cao Cao, but they suffered defeat at the hands of Cao Cao. In the aftermath, they retreated and sought support from Sun Quan. Guan Yu (Liu Bei's subordinate lieutenant) had managed to retrieve most of Jing Province's fleet from the Han River. Cao Cao occupied the naval base at Jiangling on the Yangtze River. He would now begin proceeding eastwards towards Sun Quan with his armies and new fleet, while sending messengers to demand Sun Quan's surrender.{{sfn|de Crespigny|1991|pp=8–9, 21}}

==== Battle of Red Cliffs ====
{{main|Battle of Red Cliffs}}
In 208, Cao Cao marched south with his army hoping to quickly unify the empire. Liu Cong surrendered Jing Province, and Cao Cao was able to capture a sizeable fleet at Jiangling. [[Sun Quan]] continued to resist; his advisor [[Lu Su]] secured an alliance with [[Liu Bei]], himself a recent refugee from the north, and [[Zhou Yu]] was placed in command of Sun Quan's navy, along with a veteran general who served the Sun family, [[Cheng Pu]]. Liu Biao's second son, [[Liu Qi (Liu Biao's son)|Liu Qi]], joined the alliance with his troops, and the combined armies of 50,000 met Cao Cao's fleet and 200,000-man force at [[Battle of Red Cliffs|Red Cliffs]] that winter. After an initial skirmish, an attack was set in motion beginning with a plan to set fire to Cao Cao's immobilised fleet through the feigned surrender of Sun Quan's general [[Huang Gai]]. Cao Cao was defeated decisively and forced to retreat in disarray back to the north. The allied victory at Red Cliffs ensured the survival of Liu Bei and Sun Quan, and provided the basis for the states of Shu and Wu.

=== Final years of the dynasty ===
[[File:Jian&#039;an Commanderies.png|thumb|Provinces and commanderies in the penultimate year of the Han dynasty (219 AD)]]
In 209, Zhou Yu captured Jiangling, establishing the south's complete dominance over the Yangtze River. Meanwhile, Liu Bei and his principal adviser Zhuge Liang captured the [[Xiang River]] basin commanderies, establishing control over the southern territories of Jing province. Sun Quan was forced to cede the territory around Jiangling to Liu Bei, because he could not establish a proper authority over it after Zhou Yu's death in 210.{{sfn|de Crespigny|1991|pp=9–10}}

In 211, Cao Cao defeated a warlord coalition in the Wei valley, ending in the Battle of Huayin, capturing the territory around Chang'an. In 211, Liu Bei accepted an invitation from Liu Zhang to come to [[Yi Province]] for aiding the latter against a threat from the north, namely Zhang Lu of Hanzhong. Liu Bei met people within Liu Zhang's court who wished that he would replace Liu Zhang as the ruler of Yi Province. A year after his arrival, Liu Bei came into conflict with Liu Zhang and turned against him. In the summer of 214, Liu Bei received the surrender of Liu Zhang, capturing Yi Province, and established his regime at Chengdu. In 215, Cao Cao captured Hanzhong after attacking and receiving the surrender of Zhang Lu. He had launched the attack from Chang'an through the Qinling Mountain passes to Hanzhong. The conquest threatened Liu Bei's territory located directly to the south. Cao Cao progressively acquired additional titles and power under the puppet Emperor Xian. He became the Chancellor in 208, the Duke of Wei in 214, and the King of Wei in 217. He also compelled Sun Quan to accept suzerainty to Wei, but it had no real effect in practice.{{sfn|de Crespigny|1991|pp=10–11, 21–22}}

After [[Liu Bei's takeover of Yi Province|Liu Bei had captured Yi Province]] from Liu Zhang in 214, Sun Quan—who had been engaged with Cao Cao in the southeast at the region between the Huai and Yangtze rivers during the intervening years—turned his attention to the middle Yangtze. Cao Cao and Sun Quan had gained no success in breaking each other's positions. [[Liu Fu (Yuanying)|Liu Fu]]<!--not Liu Bei-->, an administrator under Cao Cao, had established agricultural garrisons at Hefei and Shouchun to defend Cao's territory near the Huai river. Sun Quan resented the fact that Liu Bei, a weaker ally, had gained so much territory west of him and demanded a larger share of the Xiang River basin. In 215, Lü Meng (Sun Quan's officer) was sent to capture Jing province's southern commanderies, but Guan Yu (Liu Bei's general) launched a counterattack. Later that year, Liu Bei and Sun Quan reached a settlement that the Xiang River would serve as the border between their territories. In the south, Sun Quan had sent He Qin, Lu Xun, and others to expand and conquer territory in what are now southern [[Zhejiang]] and [[Fujian]].{{sfn|de Crespigny|1991|p=10}}

In 219, Liu Bei seized [[Hanzhong]] by defeating and killing General Xiahou Yuan, who served Cao Cao. Cao Cao sent reinforcements in an unsuccessful attempt to reclaim the territory. Liu Bei had now secured his territory against the north and declared himself the King of Hanzhong. In the east, Sun Quan attempted to capture Hefei from Cao Cao, but he did not succeed.{{sfn|de Crespigny|1991|p=11}}

While Lu Su had been chief commander for Sun Quan in Jing Province, their policy was to maintain the alliance with Liu Bei while Cao Cao was still a threat. This changed when Sun Quan appointed Lü Meng when Lu Su died in 217. In 219, Guan Yu sailed from Jiangling up the Han River [[Battle of Fancheng|towards the city of Fan]] (near Xianyang), but was unable to capture it. In the autumn of 219, Lü Meng launched a [[Lü Meng's invasion of Jing Province|surprise attack]] by sailing up the Yangtze towards Jiangling, resulting in its capture. Guan Yu was unable to hold his position as most of his army surrendered. He was captured and executed on Sun Quan's order. Cao Cao regained the Han valley, while Sun Quan captured all the territory east of the Yangtze Gorges.{{sfn|de Crespigny|1991|pp=11–12}}