Editing Third Crusade (section)

==Barbarossa's crusade==
The crusade of [[Frederick Barbarossa]], [[Holy Roman Emperor]], was "the most meticulously planned and organized" yet.{{sfn|Freed|2016|p=482}} Frederick was sixty-six years old when he set out.{{sfn|Freed|2016|p=512}} Two accounts dedicated to his expedition survive: the ''[[Historia de expeditione Friderici imperatoris|History of the Expedition of the Emperor Frederick]]'' and the ''[[History of the Pilgrims]]''. There is also a short tract, the ''[[Letter on the Death of the Emperor Frederick]]''.{{sfn|Loud|2010|pp=7–8}}

===Taking the cross===
On 27 October 1187, just over three weeks after Saladin's capture of Jerusalem, Pope Gregory VIII sent letters to the German episcopate announcing his election and ordering them to win the German nobility over to a new crusade. Around 23 November, Frederick received letters that had been sent to him from the rulers of the Crusader states in the East urging him to come to their aid.{{sfn|Freed|2016|p=471}}

By 11 November, Cardinal [[Henry of Marcy]] had been appointed to preach the crusade in Germany. He preached before Frederick and a public assembly in [[Strasbourg]] around 1 December, as did Bishop [[Henry of Hasenburg|Henry of Strasbourg]]. About 500 knights took the cross at Strasbourg, but Frederick demurred on the grounds of his ongoing conflict with Archbishop [[Philip I (archbishop of Cologne)|Philip of Cologne]]. He did, however, send envoys to Philip of France (at the time his ally) to urge him to take the cross. On 25 December, Frederick and Philip met in person on the border between [[Ivois]] and [[Mouzon, Ardennes|Mouzon]] in the presence of Henry of Marcy and [[Joscius, Archbishop of Tyre]], but he could not convince Philip to go on a crusade because he was at war with England.{{sfn|Freed|2016|p=471}}

Frederick held [[Curia Christi|a diet in Mainz]] on 27 March 1188. Because of its purpose, he named the diet the "Court of Christ". The archbishop of Cologne submitted to Frederick and peace was restored to the empire. Bishop [[Godfrey of Spitzenberg|Godfrey of Würzburg]] preached a crusade sermon and Frederick, at the urging of the assembly, took the cross. He was followed by his son, Duke [[Frederick VI of Swabia]],{{efn|Frederick's eldest son, [[Henry VI, Holy Roman Emperor|Henry VI]], who had already been elected [[king of the Romans]], was to remain behind as regent. On 10 April 1189, Frederick wrote to Pope Clement III asking for a postponement of Henry's planned coronation as co-emperor because he did not want Henry to leave Germany during the regency.{{sfn|Freed|2016|p=479}} Frederick formally appointed his son as regent at Regensburg on the eve of his departure.{{sfn|Freed|2016|p=487}}}} and by Duke [[Frederick of Bohemia]],{{efn|The duke of Bohemia died before the crusade began.{{sfn|Freed|2016|p=487}}}} Duke [[Leopold V, Duke of Austria|Leopold V of Austria]], Landgrave [[Louis III of Thuringia]]{{efn|Both Leopold V and Louis III sailed with their armies from Italy rather than march overland with Frederick.{{sfn|Freed|2016|p=487}} Leopold was delayed by a border dispute with Hungary.{{sfn|Freed|2016|p=488}}}} and a host of lesser nobles.{{sfn|Freed|2016|pp=472–473}}

After taking the cross, Frederick proclaimed a "general expedition against the pagans" in accordance with the pope's instructions. He set the period of preparation as 17 April 1188 to 8 April 1189 and scheduled the army to assemble at [[Regensburg]] on [[Saint George's Day]] (23 April 1189). To prevent the crusade from degenerating into an undisciplined mob, participants were required to have at least three [[Mark (currency)|marks]], which was enough to be able support oneself for two years.{{sfn|Freed|2016|pp=472–473}}

===Protecting the Jews===
At Strasbourg, Frederick imposed a small tax on the [[History of the Jews in Germany|Jews of Germany]] to fund the crusade. He also put the Jews under his protection and forbade anyone to preach against the Jews.{{sfn|Freed|2016|p=471}} The First and Second Crusades in Germany had been marred by [[Rhineland massacres|violence against the Jews]]. The Third Crusade itself occasioned an outbreak of [[12th century English pogroms|violence against the Jews in England]]. Frederick successfully prevented a repetition of those events inside Germany.{{sfn|Freed|2016|pp=473–474}}

On 29 January 1188, a mob invaded the Jewish quarter in Mainz and many Jews fled to the imperial [[Münzenberg Castle|castle of Münzenberg]]. There were further incidents connected with the "Court of Christ" in March. According to Rabbi Moses ha-Cohen of Mainz,{{efn|Moses's account is known from a letter he wrote to his brother-in-law, [[Eleazar of Worms]].{{sfn|Freed|2016|pp=473–474}}}} there were minor incidents from the moment people began arriving for the Court of Christ on 9 March. This culminated in a mob gathering to invade the Jewish quarter on 26 March. It was dispersed by the imperial marshal [[Henry of Kalden]]. The rabbi then met with the emperor, which resulted in an imperial edict threatening maiming or death for anyone who maimed or killed a Jew. On 29 March, Frederick and the rabbi then rode through the streets together to emphasise that the Jews had imperial protection. Those Jews who had fled in January returned at the end of April.{{sfn|Freed|2016|pp=473–474}}

===Diplomatic preparations===
Shortly after the Strasbourg assembly, Frederick dispatched legates to negotiate the passage of his army through their lands: Archbishop [[Conrad of Wittelsbach|Conrad of Mainz]] to Hungary, [[Godfrey of Wiesenbach]] to the Seljuk sultanate of Rûm and an unnamed ambassador to the Byzantine Empire. He may also have sent representatives to Prince [[Leo I, King of Armenia|Leo II of Armenia]].{{sfn|Freed|2016|p=480}}

Because Frederick had signed a treaty of friendship with Saladin in 1175,{{sfn|Freed|2016|p=355}} he felt it necessary to give Saladin notice of the termination of their alliance.{{efn|There is a published correspondence, almost certainly forged, between Frederick and Saladin concerning the end of their friendship.{{sfn|Freed|2016|p=626 n.44}}}} On 26 May 1188, he sent Count [[Henry II of Dietz]] to present an ultimatum to Saladin. The sultan was ordered to withdraw from the lands he had conquered, to return the [[True Cross]] to the [[Church of the Holy Sepulchre]] and to make satisfaction for those Christians who had been killed in his conquests, otherwise Frederick would abrogate their treaty.{{sfn|Freed|2016|pp=480–481}}

A few days after Christmas 1188, Frederick received Hungarian, Byzantine, Serbian, Seljuk and possibly Ayyubid envoys in [[Nuremberg]]. The Hungarians and Seljuks promised provisions and safe-conduct to the crusaders. The envoys of [[Stefan Nemanja]], grand prince of Serbia, announced that their prince would receive Frederick in [[Niš]]. An agreement was reached with the Byzantine envoy, [[John Kamateros (logothetes tou dromou)|John Kamateros]], but it required Godfrey of Würzburg, Frederick of Swabia and Leopold of Austria to swear oaths for the crusaders' good behaviour. Bishop [[Hermann of Katzenelnbogen|Hermann of Münster]], Count [[Rupert III of Nassau]], the future [[Henry III of Dietz]] and the imperial chamberlain [[Markward von Neuenburg]] with a large entourage{{efn|Sources give their entourage as 100, 300 or 500 knights.{{sfn|Freed|2016|p=481}}}} were sent ahead to make preparations in Byzantium.{{sfn|Freed|2016|pp=480–481}}

===Mustering an army===
At the Strasbourg assembly in December 1187, Bishop Godfrey of Würzburg urged Frederick to sail his army to the Holy Land rather than proceed overland. Frederick declined{{efn|The emperor had been on the Second Crusade in 1147 and so was familiar with the overland route.{{sfn|Freed|2016|pp=51–53}}}} and Pope [[Clement III]] even ordered Godfrey not to discuss it further. Ultimately, many Germans ignored the rendezvous at Regensburg and went to the [[Kingdom of Sicily]], hoping to sail to the Holy Land on their own. Frederick wrote to King [[William II of Sicily]] asking him to bar such sailings. The emperor and the pope may have feared that Saladin would soon seize all the crusader ports.{{sfn|Freed|2016|p=480}}

Frederick was the first of the three kings to set out for the Holy Land. On 15 April 1189 in [[Haguenau]],{{efn|This place may have had personal significance for Frederick.{{sfn|Freed|2016|p=482}} It was the closest place Frederick, an [[itinerant king]], had to a home and may also have been where he was born.{{sfn|Freed|2016|pp=9–10}}}} Frederick formally and symbolically accepted the staff and scrip of a pilgrim.{{sfn|Freed|2016|p=482}} He arrived in Regensburg for the muster between 7 and 11 May.{{sfn|Freed|2016|p=486}} The army had begun to gather on 1 May. Frederick was disappointed by the small force awaiting him, but he was dissuaded from calling off the enterprise when he learned that an international force had already advanced to the Hungarian border and was waiting for the imperial army.{{sfn|Freed|2016|p=487}}

Frederick set out on 11 May 1189 with an army of 12,000–26,000 men,<ref>McLynn, p. 141: The book estimates that roughly 25,000 soldiers joined, but suggests the amount could have been somewhat to substantially more</ref> including 2,000–4,000 knights.{{sfn|Loud|2010|p=19}}{{sfn|Freed|2016|pp=487–488}}{{sfn|Bachrach|Bachrach|2017|p=197}} Contemporary chroniclers gave a range of estimates for Frederick's army, from 10,000 to 600,000 men,{{efn|Christian estimates of the size of Frederick's army vary from 13,000 to 100,000, while Muslim sources wildly exaggerate its size from 200,000 to 300,000.{{sfn|Freed|2016|pp=487–488}}}} including 4,000–20,000 knights.{{sfn|Loud|2010|p=19}}{{sfn|Loud|2010|p=45}}<ref name=Tyerman2>Tyerman p. 418</ref><ref name = "Phillips66"/> After leaving Germany, Frederick's army was increased by the addition of a contingent of 2,000 men led by the Hungarian prince [[Géza, son of Géza II of Hungary|Géza]], the younger brother of the King [[Béla III of Hungary]], and Bishop [[Ugrin Csák, Archbishop of Esztergom|Ugrin Csák]].<ref name="Konstam124">A. Konstam, ''Historical Atlas of The Crusades'', 124</ref> Two contingents from the Empire, from [[Kingdom of Burgundy-Arles|Burgundy]] and [[Duchy of Lorraine|Lorraine]], also joined the army during its transit of Byzantium. The army that Frederick led into Muslim territory was probably larger than the one with which he had left Germany.{{sfn|Freed|2016|pp=487–488}}

===Passage through the Balkans===
{{Location map+
| Europe without the extreme north
| width          = 250
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| caption        = Key stops along the route of Barbarossa's crusade from his taking the cross to his death
| alt            =
| places         =
{{Location map~ | Europe without the extreme north
    | label = Haguenau
    | position = left
    | lat_deg = 48.82
    | lon_deg = 7.78 }}
    {{Location map~ | Europe without the extreme north
    | label = Regensburg
    | position = top
    | lat_deg = 49.01 
    | lon_deg = 12.10 }}
{{Location map~ | Europe without the extreme north
    | label = <!--Mauthausen-->
    | lat_deg = 48.24
    | lon_deg = 14.52 }}
{{Location map~ | Europe without the extreme north
    | label = <!--Vienna-->
    | lat_deg = 48.2
    | lon_deg = 16.37 }}
{{Location map~ | Europe without the extreme north
    | label = <!--Pressburg-->
    | lat_deg = 48.15
    | lon_deg = 17.11 }}
{{Location map~ | Europe without the extreme north
    | label = Esztergom
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    | lat_deg = 47.79
    | lon_deg = 18.74 }}
{{Location map~ | Europe without the extreme north
    | label = Belgrade
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    | lon_deg = 20.46 }}
{{Location map~ | Europe without the extreme north
    | label = <!--Braničevo-->
    | lat_deg = 44.70
    | lon_deg = 21.54 }}
{{Location map~ | Europe without the extreme north
    | label = <!--Ćuprija-->
    | lat_deg = 43.93
    | lon_deg = 21.38 }}
{{Location map~ | Europe without the extreme north
    | label = <!--Niš-->
    | lat_deg = 43.32
    | lon_deg = 21.90 }}
{{Location map~ | Europe without the extreme north
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    | lat_deg = 42.70
    | lon_deg = 23.32 }}
{{Location map~ | Europe without the extreme north
    | label = <!--Pazardzhik-->
    | lat_deg = 42.19
    | lon_deg = 24.33 }}
{{Location map~ | Europe without the extreme north
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    | lon_deg = 24.75 }}
{{Location map~ | Europe without the extreme north
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    | lon_deg = 25.32 }}
{{Location map~ | Europe without the extreme north
    | label = <!--Adrianople-->
    | lat_deg = 41.68
    | lon_deg = 26.56 }}
{{Location map~ | Europe without the extreme north
    | label = Gallipoli
    | position = right
    | lat_deg = 40.41
    | lon_deg = 26.67 }}
{{Location map~ | Europe without the extreme north
    | label = <!--Philadelphia-->
    | lat_deg = 38.35
    | lon_deg = 28.52 }}
{{Location map~ | Europe without the extreme north
    | label = <!--Laodicea-->
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    | lon_deg = 29.11 }}
{{Location map~ | Europe without the extreme north
    | label = <!--Philomelium-->
    | lat_deg = 38.36
    | lon_deg = 31.42 }}
{{Location map~ | Europe without the extreme north
    | label = <!--Iconium-->
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    | lon_deg = 32.49 }}    
{{Location map~ | Europe without the extreme north
    | label = <!--Laranda-->
    | lat_deg = 37.18
    | lon_deg = 33.22 }}   
{{Location map~ | Europe without the extreme north
    | label = Seleucia
    | position = bottom
    | lat_deg = 36.40
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}}

====Hungary====
Frederick sailed from Regensburg on 11 May 1189, but most of the army had left earlier by land for the Hungarian border. On 16 May, Frederick ordered the village of [[Mauthausen, Upper Austria|Mauthausen]] burned because it had levied a toll on the army. In [[Vienna]], Frederick expelled 500 men from the army for various infractions. He celebrated [[Pentecost]] on 28 May encamped across from Hungarian [[Bratislava|Pressburg]]. During his four days encamped before Pressburg, Frederick issued an ordinance for the good behaviour of the army, a "law against malefactors" in words of one chronicle. It apparently had a good effect.{{sfn|Freed|2016|pp=488–489}}

From Pressburg, the Hungarian envoys escorted the crusaders to [[Esztergom]], where King [[Béla III of Hungary]] greeted them on 4 June. He provided boats, wine, bread and barley to the army. Frederick stayed in Esztergom for four days. The king of Hungary accompanied the army to the Byzantine border at [[Belgrade]]. There were incidents during the crossing of the [[Drava]] and [[Tisza]] rivers, but the [[Sava]] was crossed on 28 June without incident. In Belgrade, Frederick staged a tournament, held a court, conducted a census of the army and wrote to the Byzantine emperor [[Isaac II Angelos|Isaac II]] to inform him that he had entered Byzantine territory.{{sfn|Freed|2016|pp=489–490}}

====Byzantine Empire====
The army, still accompanied by Béla III, left Belgrade on 1 July, crossed the [[Great Morava|Morava]] and headed for [[Braničevo (Golubac)|Braničevo]], which was the seat of the local Byzantine administration since Belgrade had been devastated in the [[Byzantine–Hungarian War (1180–1185)]] with the Hungarians and Serbs. The head of the Byzantine administration was a ''[[Dux|doux]]'' (duke). At Braničevo, Béla III took leave and returned to Hungary. He gave the crusaders wagons and in return Frederick gave him his boats, since they would no longer be travelling up the Danube.{{sfn|Freed|2016|pp=490–491}}

The Burgundian contingent under Archbishop [[Aimo II of Tarentaise]] and a contingent from [[Metz]] caught up with the army at Braničevo. The duke of Braničevo gave the army eight days' worth of provisions. The enlarged army, including a Hungarian contingent, left Braničevo on 11 July following the [[Via Militaris]] that led to Constantinople. They were harassed by bandits along the route. According to crusader sources, some captured bandits confessed that they were acting on the orders of the duke of Braničevo.{{sfn|Freed|2016|pp=490–491}}

On 25 July, Frederick was in [[Ćuprija]] when he received word that [[Peter of Brixey]] had arrived in Hungary with the contingent from Lorraine. It was there that the problems of communication between Frederick and Isaac became apparent. Frederick's envoys had reached Constantinople, but Isaac was away besieging rebels in [[Alasehir|Philadelphia]] under a pretender named [[Theodore Mangaphas]]. Nonetheless, John Kamateros wrote to inform Frederick that a market would be available in [[Sofia]].{{sfn|Freed|2016|pp=491–492}} It was probably from Ćuprija that Frederick sent another envoy, a Hungarian count named Lectoforus, to Constantinople to see what was going on.{{sfn|Freed|2016|p=494}}

Frederick was welcomed by Grand Prince Stefan Nemanja in Niš with pomp on 27 July. Although the Serbian ruler asked the emperor to [[Investiture|invest]] him with his domains, Frederick refused on the grounds that he was on a pilgrimage and did not wish to harm Isaac as the Serbians rebelled against the Byzantines earlier. A marriage alliance was arranged between a daughter of Duke [[Berthold of Merania]] and a nephew of Nemanja, [[Toljen of Hum|Toljen]]. Frederick also received messages of support from Tsar [[Peter II of Bulgaria]], but refused an outright alliance. Despite Frederick's care not to be drawn into Balkan politics, the events at Niš were regarded by the Byzantines as hostile acts.{{sfn|Freed|2016|pp=491–492}}

Before leaving Niš, Frederick had Godfrey of Würzburg preach a sermon on the importance of discipline and maintaining the peace. He also reorganized the army, dividing it into four, because it would be entering territory more firmly under Byzantine control and less friendly. The vanguard of Swabians and Bavarians was put under the command of the Duke of Swabia assisted by [[Herman IV, Margrave of Baden|Herman IV of Baden]] and [[Berthold III of Vohburg]]. The second division consisted of the Hungarian and Bohemian contingents with their separate standard-bearers. The third was under the command of the Duke of Merania assisted by Bishop [[Diepold of Passau]]. The fourth was under Frederick's personal command and Rupert of Nassau was named its standard-bearer ''in absentia''.{{sfn|Freed|2016|pp=492–493}}

The crusaders left Niš on 30 July and arrived in Sofia on 13 August. They found the city practically abandoned. There was no Byzantine delegation to meet them and no market. The following day the crusaders left Sofia and the Lorrainers under Peter of Brixey finally caught up with the main army. The [[Gate of Trajan]] was held by a Byzantine force of 500 men. According to Diepold of Passau, the garrison retreated at the sight of Frederick's scouts, but the ''History of the Expedition'' says that it retreated only after being engaged by Frederick and a small group of knights. The army arrived at [[Pazardzhik]] on 20 August, finding an abundance of supplies.{{sfn|Freed|2016|pp=493–494}}

===Conflict with Byzantium===
Lectoforus met the army at Pazardzhik and informed Frederick of the disrespect shown to his envoys. On 24 August, the imperial army reached [[Plovdiv|Philippopolis]], the Byzantine forces in the area having fled at their approach. On 25 August, Lectoforus' report was confirmed: Hermann of Münster, Rupert of Nassau, Henry of Dietz and Markward von Neuenburg had been stripped of their possessions and openly mocked in presence of the Ayyubid ambassador. That same day, a Byzantine envoy, James of Pisa, arrived with a letter from Isaac, who referred to Frederick as "king of Germany", refusing him the imperial title, and accused him of plotting to put his son Frederick on the throne of Constantinople. He nonetheless offered to fulfill the agreement of December 1188 to ferry the crusaders across the [[Dardanelles]] if he received hostages (including Duke Frederick and six bishops) in addition to the envoys he had arrested. Frederick's response that he would consider the offer only after the envoys were released.{{sfn|Freed|2016|pp=494–495}}

According to the ''History of the Expedition'', the receipt of Isaac's letter marked a break in crusader–Byzantine relations. Thereafter, the crusaders resorted to plunder and a scorched earth policy. On 26 August, the crusaders seized Philippopolis and its plentiful supplies. Frederick tried to communicate with the nearest Byzantine commander, the ''[[protostrator]]'' [[Manuel Kamytzes]]. When he received no response, he attacked his army on 29 August, killing fifty. The following day (30 August) or a week later (6 September), Duke Frederick and Duke Berthold occupied [[Stara Zagora|Berrhoe]] unopposed. Henry of Kalden occupied a castle called Scribention, while Bishop Diepold and Duke Berthold took a further two towns and ten castles. At this point, the local [[Armenians|Armenian]] and [[Bulgars|Bulgarian]] population swore oaths to Frederick to supply the market in Philippopolis as long as the crusaders stayed. They remained there and in partial occupation of Macedonia until 5 November.{{sfn|Freed|2016|pp=494–495}}

Isaac ordered Kamytzes to shadow the crusaders and harass their foraging parties.{{sfn|Magoulias|1984|p=222}} About 22 November 1189, with some 2,000 horsemen, Kamytzes set up an ambush for the crusaders' supply train near Philippopolis. The crusaders were informed of this from the Armenian inhabitants of the fortress of [[Prousenos]], where Kamytzes had set up his main camp. They set out with 5,000 cavalry to attack the Byzantine camp. The two forces met by accident near Prousenos, and in the ensuing battle, Kamytzes was routed. The historian [[Niketas Choniates]], who was an eyewitness, writes that the Byzantines fled as far as [[Ohrid]], and that Kamytzes did not rejoin his men until three days after the battle.{{sfn|Magoulias|1984|pp=224–225}}

===Turkish territory===
[[File:Varka and Golshah. Battle scene 1. Mid 13th century Seljuk Anatolia.jpg|thumb|upright=1.75|Battle scene, in ''[[Varka and Golshah]]'', mid-13th century Seljuk Anatolia.<ref name="DN9">{{cite book |last1=Nicolle |first1=David |author-link=David Nicolle |title=Men-at-arms series 171 - Saladin and the saracens |date=1997 |publisher=Osprey publishing |url=https://www.ghazali.org/saladin/maas-171.pdf |pages=9–12}}</ref>]]
After reaching Anatolia, Frederick was promised safe passage through the region by the Turkish Sultanate of Rum, but was faced instead with constant Turkish hit-and-run attacks on his army.{{sfn|Loud|2010|pp=102–103}} A Turkish army of 10,000 men was defeated at the [[Battle of Philomelion (1190)|Battle of Philomelion]] by 2,000 Crusaders, with 4,174–5,000 Turks slain.{{sfn|Loud|2010|p=104}} After continued Turkish raids against the Crusader army, Frederick decided to replenish his stock of animals and foodstuffs by conquering the Turkish capital of [[Iconium]]. On 18 May 1190, the German army defeated its Turkish enemies at the [[Battle of Iconium (1190)|Battle of Iconium]], sacking the city and killing 3,000 Turkish troops.{{sfn|Loud|2010|pp=109–111}}

While crossing the [[Saleph River]] on 10 June 1190, Frederick's horse slipped, throwing him against the rocks; he then drowned in the river. After this, much of his army returned to Germany by sea in anticipation of the upcoming Imperial election. The Emperor's son, [[Frederick VI, Duke of Swabia|Frederick of Swabia]], led the remaining 5,000 men to [[Antioch]]. There, the Emperor's body was [[mos Teutonicus|boiled to remove the flesh]], which was interred in the [[Church of Saint Peter]]; his bones were put in a bag to continue the crusade. In Antioch, however, the German army was further reduced by fever.{{sfn|Loud|2010|p=181}} Young Frederick had to ask the assistance of his kinsman [[Conrad of Montferrat]] to lead him safely to Acre, by way of Tyre, where his father's bones were buried. While the Imperial army did not achieve its objective of capturing Jerusalem, it did capture the capital of the Seljuk Sultanate and had inflicted considerable damage on Turkish forces, with more than 9,000 Turkish soldiers killed in all battles and skirmishes combined.{{sfn|Loud|2010|pp=97–111}}