Editing Thermodynamics (section)

==History==
[[File:Eight founding schools.png|400px|thumb|The [[thermodynamicist]]s of the original eight founding schools of thermodynamics. The schools with the most-lasting influence on the modern versions of thermodynamics are the Berlin school, particularly [[Rudolf Clausius]]'s 1865 textbook ''The Mechanical Theory of Heat'', the Vienna school, with the [[statistical mechanics]] of [[Ludwig Boltzmann]], and the Gibbsian school at Yale University of [[Willard Gibbs]]' 1876 and his book ''[[On the Equilibrium of Heterogeneous Substances]]'' which launched [[chemical thermodynamics]].<ref name="auto">[http://www.eoht.info/page/Schools+of+thermodynamics Schools of thermodynamics] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171207151102/http://www.eoht.info/page/Schools+of+thermodynamics|date=7 December 2017}} – EoHT.info.</ref>]]The [[history of thermodynamics]] as a scientific discipline generally begins with [[Otto von Guericke]] who, in 1650, built and designed the world's first [[vacuum pump]] and demonstrated a [[vacuum]] using his [[Magdeburg hemispheres]]. Guericke was driven to make a vacuum in order to disprove [[Aristotle]]'s long-held supposition that 'nature abhors a vacuum'. Shortly after Guericke, the Anglo-Irish physicist and chemist [[Robert Boyle]] had learned of Guericke's designs and, in 1656, in coordination with English scientist [[Robert Hooke]], built an air pump.<ref>{{cite book | author=Partington, J.R. | title=A Short History of Chemistry | url=https://archive.org/details/shorthistoryofch0000part_q6h4 | url-access=registration | publisher=Dover | year=1989 | oclc=19353301| author-link=J. R. Partington }}</ref> Using this pump, Boyle and Hooke noticed a correlation between [[pressure]], [[temperature]], and [[Volume (thermodynamics)|volume]]. In time, [[Boyle's Law]] was formulated, which states that pressure and volume are [[inverse proportion|inversely proportional]]. Then, in 1679, based on these concepts, an associate of Boyle's named [[Denis Papin]] built a [[steam digester]], which was a closed vessel with a tightly fitting lid that confined steam until a high pressure was generated.

Later designs implemented a steam release valve that kept the machine from exploding. By watching the valve rhythmically move up and down, Papin conceived of the idea of a [[piston]] and a cylinder engine. He did not, however, follow through with his design. Nevertheless, in 1697, based on Papin's designs, engineer [[Thomas Savery]] built the first engine, followed by [[Thomas Newcomen]] in 1712. Although these early engines were crude and inefficient, they attracted the attention of the leading scientists of the time.

The fundamental concepts of [[heat capacity]] and [[latent heat]], which were necessary for the development of thermodynamics, were developed by Professor [[Joseph Black]] at the University of Glasgow, where [[James Watt]] was employed as an instrument maker. Black and Watt performed experiments together, but it was Watt who conceived the idea of the [[Watt steam engine#Separate condenser|external condenser]] which resulted in a large increase in [[steam engine]] efficiency.<ref>The Newcomen engine was improved from 1711 until Watt's work, making the efficiency comparison subject to qualification, but the increase from the 1865 version was on the order of 100%.</ref> Drawing on all the previous work led [[Nicolas Léonard Sadi Carnot|Sadi Carnot]], the "father of thermodynamics", to publish ''[[Reflections on the Motive Power of Fire]]'' (1824), a discourse on heat, power, energy and engine efficiency. The book outlined the basic energetic relations between the [[Carnot engine]], the [[Carnot cycle]], and motive power. It marked the start of thermodynamics as a modern science.<ref name="Perrot">{{cite book |author=Perrot, Pierre |title=A to Z of Thermodynamics |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=1998 |isbn=978-0-19-856552-9 |oclc=123283342}}</ref>

The first thermodynamic textbook was written in 1859 by [[William John Macquorn Rankine|William Rankine]], originally trained as a physicist and a civil and mechanical engineering professor at the [[University of Glasgow]].<ref>{{cite book |author1=Cengel, Yunus A. |author2=Boles, Michael A. | title=Thermodynamics – an Engineering Approach | publisher=McGraw-Hill | year=2005 | isbn=978-0-07-310768-4}}</ref> The first and second laws of thermodynamics emerged simultaneously in the 1850s, primarily out of the works of William Rankine, [[Rudolf Clausius]], and [[William Thomson, 1st Baron Kelvin|William Thomson]] (Lord Kelvin).
The foundations of statistical thermodynamics were set out by physicists such as [[James Clerk Maxwell]], [[Ludwig Boltzmann]], [[Max Planck]], [[Rudolf Clausius]] and [[Josiah Willard Gibbs|J. Willard Gibbs]].

Clausius, who first stated the basic ideas of the second law in his paper "On the Moving Force of Heat",<ref name="Theory of Heat"/> published in 1850, and is called "one of the founding fathers of thermodynamics",<ref>{{Citation | author=Cardwell, D.S.L. | title=From Watt to Clausius: The Rise of Thermodynamics in the Early Industrial Age | location=London | publisher=Heinemann | year=1971 | isbn=978-0-435-54150-7}}</ref> introduced the concept of [[entropy]] in 1865.

During the years 1873–76 the American mathematical physicist [[Josiah Willard Gibbs]] published a series of three papers, the most famous being ''[[On the Equilibrium of Heterogeneous Substances]]'',<ref name="Gibbs 1876">{{cite book |author=Gibbs, Willard, J. |url=https://archive.org/details/transactions03conn |title=Transactions of the Connecticut Academy of Arts and Sciences |publisher=New Haven |year=1874–1878 |volume=III |pages=[https://archive.org/details/transactions03conn/page/108 108]–248, 343–524}}</ref> in which he showed how [[thermodynamic processes]], including [[chemical reaction]]s, could be graphically analyzed, by studying the [[energy]], [[entropy]], [[Volume (thermodynamics)|volume]], [[temperature]] and [[pressure]] of the [[thermodynamic system]] in such a manner, one can determine if a process would occur spontaneously.<ref>{{cite book | author=Gibbs, Willard | title=The Scientific Papers of J. Willard Gibbs, Volume One: Thermodynamics | publisher=Ox Bow Press | year=1993 | isbn=978-0-918024-77-0 | oclc=27974820}}</ref> Also [[Pierre Duhem]] in the 19th century wrote about chemical thermodynamics.<ref name="Duhem 1886">Duhem, P.M.M. (1886). ''Le Potential Thermodynamique et ses Applications'', Hermann, Paris.</ref> During the early 20th century, chemists such as [[Gilbert N. Lewis]], [[Merle Randall]],<ref name="Lewis Randall 1923">{{cite book |last1=Lewis |first1=Gilbert N. |url=https://archive.org/details/thermodynamicsfr00gnle |title=Thermodynamics and the Free Energy of Chemical Substances |last2=Randall |first2=Merle |publisher=McGraw-Hill Book Co. Inc. |year=1923}}</ref> and [[E. A. Guggenheim]]<ref name="Guggenheim 1933">Guggenheim, E.A. (1933). ''Modern Thermodynamics by the Methods of J.W. Gibbs'', Methuen, London.</ref><ref name="Guggenheim 1949/1967">Guggenheim, E.A. (1949/1967). ''Thermodynamics. An Advanced Treatment for Chemists and Physicists'', 1st edition 1949, 5th edition 1967, North-Holland, Amsterdam.</ref> applied the mathematical methods of Gibbs to the analysis of chemical processes.