Editing Theophrastus (section)

== Writings ==
[[File:Theophrastus - Historia plantarum, 1549 - 3034262.tif|thumb|upright|left|''[[Historia Plantarum (Theophrastus)|Historia plantarum]]'', 1549]]
From the lists of Diogenes, giving 227 titles, it appears that the activity of Theophrastus extended over the whole field of contemporary knowledge. His writing probably differed little from Aristotle's treatment of the same themes, though supplementary in details. Like Aristotle, most of his writings are [[Lost literary work|lost work]]s.{{sfn|Wheeler|1911}} Thus Theophrastus, like Aristotle, had composed a first and second ''Analytic'' ({{lang|grc|Ἀναλυτικῶν προτέρων}} and {{lang|grc|Ἀναλυτικῶν ὑστέρων}}).{{sfn|Laërtius|1925|loc=§&nbsp;42}} He had also written books on ''Topics'' ({{lang|grc|Ἀνηγμένων τόπων}}, {{lang|grc|Τοπικῶν}} and {{lang|grc|Τὰ πρὸ τῶν τόπων}});{{sfn|Laërtius|1925|loc=§&nbsp;42, 45, 50}} on the ''Analysis of Syllogisms'' ({{lang|grc|Περὶ ἀναλύσεως συλλογισμῶν}} and {{lang|grc|Περὶ συλλογισμῶν λύσεως}}), on ''Sophisms'' ({{lang|grc|Σοφισμάτων}}) and on ''Affirmation and Denial'' ({{lang|grc|Περὶ καταφάσεως καὶ ἀποφάσεως}}){{sfn|Laërtius|1925|loc=§&nbsp;42, 45}} as well as on the ''Natural Philosophy'' ({{lang|grc|Περὶ φύσεως}}, {{lang|grc|Περὶ φυσικῶν}}, {{lang|grc|Φυσικῶν}} and others), on ''Heaven'' ({{lang|grc|Περὶ οὐρανοῦ}}), and on ''Meteorological Phenomena'' ({{lang|grc|Τῆς μεταρσιολεσχίας}} and {{lang|grc|Μεταρσιολογικῶν}}).{{sfn|Laërtius|1925|loc=§&nbsp;46, 50, 43, 44}}

[[File:161Theophrastus 161 frontespizio.jpg|upright|thumb|Frontispiece to the illustrated 1644 edition of the ''Enquiry into Plants'' (''[[Historia Plantarum (Theophrastus)|Historia Plantarum]]'')]]

In addition, Theophrastus wrote on the ''Warm and the Cold'' ({{lang|grc|Περὶ θερμοῦ καὶ ψυχροῦ}}),{{sfn|Laërtius|1925|loc=§&nbsp;44}} on ''Water'' ({{lang|grc|Περὶ ὕδατος}}), ''Fire'' ({{lang|grc|Περὶ πυρóς}}),{{sfn|Laërtius|1925|loc=§&nbsp;45}} the ''Sea'' ({{lang|grc|Περὶ θαλάττης}}),{{sfn|Laërtius|1925|loc=§&nbsp;45}} on ''Coagulation and Melting'' ({{lang|grc|Περὶ πήξεων καὶ τήξεων}}), on various phenomena of organic and spiritual life,{{sfn|Laërtius|1925|loc=§&nbsp;45}} and on the ''Soul'' ({{lang|grc|Περὶ ψυχῆς}}), on ''Experience'' ({{lang|grc|Περὶ ἐμπειρίας}}) and ''On Sense Perception'' (also known as ''On the Senses''; {{lang|grc|Περὶ αἰσθήσεων}}).{{sfn|Laërtius|1925|loc=§&nbsp;42, 46}} Likewise, we find mention of monographs of Theophrastus on the early Greek philosophers [[Anaximenes of Miletus|Anaximenes]], [[Anaxagoras]], [[Empedocles]], [[Archelaus (philosopher)|Archelaus]],{{sfn|Laërtius|1925|loc=§&nbsp;42, 43}} [[Diogenes of Apollonia]], [[Democritus]],{{sfn|Laërtius|1925|loc=§&nbsp;43}} which were made use of by [[Simplicius of Cilicia|Simplicius]]; and also on [[Xenocrates]],{{sfn|Laërtius|1925|loc=§&nbsp;47}} against the [[Platonism|Academics]],{{sfn|Laërtius|1925|loc=§&nbsp;49}} and a sketch of the political doctrine of [[Plato]].{{sfn|Laërtius|1925|loc=§&nbsp;43}}

He studied general history, as we know from [[Plutarch]]'s lives of [[Lycurgus of Sparta|Lycurgus]], [[Solon]], [[Aristides]], [[Pericles]], [[Nicias]], [[Alcibiades]], [[Lysander]], [[Agesilaus]], and [[Demosthenes]], which were probably borrowed from the work on ''Lives'' ({{lang|grc|Περὶ βίων}}).{{sfn|Laërtius|1925|loc=§&nbsp;42}} But his main efforts were to continue the labours of Aristotle in [[natural history]]. This is testified to not only by a number of treatises on individual subjects of [[zoology]], of which, besides the titles, only fragments remain, but also by his books ''On Stones'', his ''Enquiry into Plants'', and ''On the Causes of Plants'' (see below), which have come down to us entire. In politics, also, he seems to have trodden in the footsteps of Aristotle. Besides his books on the ''State'' ({{lang|grc|Πολιτικῶν}} and {{lang|grc|Πολιτικοῦ}}), we find quoted various treatises on ''Education'' ({{lang|grc|Περὶ παιδείας βασιλέως}} and {{lang|grc|Περὶ παιδείας}}),{{sfn|Laërtius|1925|loc=§&nbsp;42, 50}} on ''Royalty'' ({{lang|grc|Περὶ βασιλείας}}, {{lang|grc|Περὶ παιδείας βασιλέως}} and {{lang|grc|Πρὸς Κάσανδρον περὶ βασιλείας}}),{{sfn|Laërtius|1925|loc=§&nbsp;42, 47, 45}} on the ''Best State'' ({{lang|grc|Περὶ τῆς ἀρίστης πολιτείας}}), on ''Political Morals'' ({{lang|grc|Πολιτικῶν ἐθῶν}}), and particularly his works on the ''Laws'' ({{lang|grc|Νόμων κατὰ στοιχεῖον}}, {{lang|grc|Νόμων ἐπιτομῆς}} and {{lang|grc|Περὶ νόμων}}), one of which, containing a recapitulation of the laws of various [[barbarian]] as well as [[Ancient Greece|Greek]] states, was intended to be a companion to Aristotle's outline of ''Politics'', and must have been similar to it.<ref>Cicero, ''de Finibus'', v. 4.</ref> He also wrote on [[Public speaking|oratory]] and [[poetry]].<ref>Cicero, ''de Invent.'' i. 35.</ref> Theophrastus, without doubt, departed further from Aristotle in his [[ethical]] writings,{{sfn|Laërtius|1925|loc=§&nbsp;42, 43, 44, 45, 47, 49, 50}} as also in his [[Metaphysics|metaphysical]] investigations of [[Motion (physics)|motion]], the [[Soul (spirit)|soul]], and [[God]].{{sfn|Laërtius|1925|loc=§&nbsp;48}}

Besides these writings, Theophrastus wrote several collections of problems, out of which some things at least have passed into the ''[[Problems (Aristotle)|Problems]]'' that have come down to us under the name of Aristotle,<ref>{{harvnb|Laërtius|1925|loc=§&nbsp;45, 47, 48}}; comp. Pliny, ''H.N.'' xxviii. 6; Aristotle, ''Probl.'' xxxiii. 12.</ref> and commentaries,<ref>{{harvnb|Laërtius|1925|loc=§&nbsp;48, 49}}; comp. §&nbsp;43.</ref> partly [[dialogues|dialogue]],<ref>Basil. Magn. ''Epist.'' 167.</ref> to which probably belonged the ''Erotikos'' ({{lang|grc|Ἐρωτικός}}),<ref>{{harvnb|Laërtius|1925|loc=§&nbsp;43}}; Athenaeus, xii. 2, xiii. 2.</ref> ''Megacles'' ({{lang|grc|Μεγακλῆς}}),{{sfn|Laërtius|1925|loc=§&nbsp;47}} ''Callisthenes'' ({{lang|grc|Καλλισθένης}}),<ref>{{harvnb|Laërtius|1925|loc=§&nbsp;44}}; Cicero, ''Tusculanae Quaestiones'', iii. 10; Alexander of Aphrodisius, ''de Anima'', ii.</ref> and ''Megarikos'' ({{lang|grc|Μεγαρικός}}),{{sfn|Laërtius|1925|loc=§&nbsp;44}} and letters,{{sfn|Laërtius|1925|loc=§&nbsp;46, 50}} partly books on [[mathematical]] sciences and their history.{{sfn|Laërtius|1925|loc=§&nbsp;42, 46, 48, 50}}

Many of his surviving works exist only in fragmentary form. "The style of these works, as of the botanical books, suggests that, as in the case of Aristotle, what we possess consists of notes for lectures or notes taken of lectures," his translator Arthur F. Hort remarks.<ref name=Hort1916 /> "There is no literary charm; the sentences are mostly compressed and highly elliptical, to the point sometimes of obscurity".<ref name=Hort1916 /> The text of these fragments and extracts is often so corrupt that there is a certain plausibility to the well-known story that the works of Aristotle and Theophrastus were allowed to languish in the cellar of [[Neleus of Scepsis]] and his descendants.<ref name="SmithDGRBM">{{harvnb|Smith|1870|loc="Theophrastus"}}</ref>

=== On plants ===
{{Main|Historia Plantarum (Theophrastus)}}

The most important of his books are two large botanical treatises, ''[[Historia Plantarum (Theophrastus)|Enquiry into Plants]]'' ({{lang|grc|Περὶ φυτῶν ἱστορία}}, generally known as {{lang|la|Historia Plantarum}}), and ''On the Causes of Plants'' ([[Greek language|Greek]]: {{lang|grc|Περὶ αἰτιῶν φυτικῶν}}, [[Latin]]: {{lang|la|De causis plantarum}}), which constitute the most important contribution to botanical science during antiquity and the Middle Ages,{{sfn|Wheeler|1911}} the first systemization of the botanical world; on the strength of these works some, following [[Carl Linnaeus|Linnaeus]], call him the "father of [[botany]]".{{sfn|Grene|Depew|2004|p=11}}

The ''Enquiry into Plants'' was originally ten books, of which nine survive. The work is arranged into a system whereby plants are classified according to their modes of generation, their localities, their sizes, and according to their practical uses such as foods, juices, herbs, etc.<ref name="Long1842">{{harvnb|Long|1842|pp=332–224}}</ref> The first book deals with the parts of plants; the second book with the reproduction of plants and the times and manner of sowing; the third, fourth, and fifth books are devoted to trees, their types, their locations, and their practical applications; the sixth book deals with [[shrubs]] and spiny plants; the seventh book deals with herbs; the eighth book deals with plants that produce edible seeds; and the ninth book deals with plants that produce useful juices, [[natural gum|gums]], [[resins]], etc.<ref name="Long1842" />

''On the Causes of Plants'' was originally eight books, of which six survive. It concerns the growth of plants; the influences on their fecundity; the proper times they should be sown and reaped; the methods of preparing the soil, manuring it, and the use of tools; and of the smells, tastes, and properties of many types of plants.<ref name="Long1842" /> The work deals mainly with the economical uses of plants rather than their medicinal uses, although the latter is sometimes mentioned.<ref name="Long1842" /> A book on wines and a book on plant smells may have once been part of the complete work.<ref>Gavin Hardy and Laurence Totelin, ''Ancient Botany'', 2015, p. 10.</ref>

Although these works contain many absurd and fabulous statements, they include valuable observations concerning the functions and properties of plants.<ref name="Long1842" /> Theophrastus observed the process of [[germination]] and recognized the significance of climate to plants. Much of the information on the Greek plants may have come from his own observations, as he is known to have travelled throughout Greece, and to have had a botanical garden of his own; but the works also profit from the reports on plants of Asia brought back from those who followed [[Alexander the Great]]: {{blockquote|to the reports of Alexander's followers he owed his accounts of such plants as the [[Cotton|cotton-plant]], [[banyan]], [[Black pepper|pepper]], [[cinnamon]], [[myrrh]], and [[frankincense]].<ref name=Hort1916 />}}

Theophrastus's ''Enquiry into Plants'' was first published in a [[Latin]] translation by [[Theodore Gaza]], at Treviso, 1483;{{efn|Theodore Gaza, a refugee from [[Thessalonica]], was working from a lost Greek manuscript that was different from any others (Hort){{full citation needed|date=March 2016}}.}} in its original [[editio princeps|Greek it first appeared]] from the press of [[Aldus Manutius]] at Venice, 1495–98, from a third-rate manuscript, which, like the majority of the manuscripts that were sent to printers' workshops in the fifteenth and sixteenth century, has disappeared.{{efn|It was carefully copied in a printing at [[Basel]], 1541.{{citation needed|date=March 2016}} }} [[Christian Friedrich Heinrich Wimmer|Christian Wimmer]] identified two manuscripts of first quality, the ''Codex Urbinas'' in the [[Vatican Library]], which was not made known to [[Johann Gottlob Schneider|J. G. Schneider]], who made the first modern critical edition, 1818–21, and the excerpts in the ''Codex Parisiensis'' in the [[Bibliothèque nationale de France]].

{{botanist|Theophr.}}

=== On moral characters ===
His book {{anchor|Characters}}''Characters'' ({{lang|grc|Ἠθικοὶ χαρακτῆρες}}) contains thirty brief outlines of moral types. They are the first recorded attempt at systematic [[character sketch|character writing]]. The book has been regarded by some as an independent work; others incline to the view that the sketches were written from time to time by Theophrastus, and collected and edited after his death; others, again, regard the ''Characters'' as part of a larger systematic work, but the style of the book is against this. Theophrastus has found many imitators in this kind of writing, notably [[Joseph Hall (bishop)|Joseph Hall]] (1608), [[Thomas Overbury|Sir Thomas Overbury]] (1614–16), [[John Earle (bishop)|Bishop Earle]] (1628), 17-century poet [[Samuel Butler (poet)|Samuel Butler]] (1613), and [[Jean de La Bruyère]] (1688), who also translated the ''Characters''.{{sfn|Wheeler|1911}} [[George Eliot]] also took inspiration from Theophrastus's ''Characters'', most notably in her book of caricatures, ''[[Impressions of Theophrastus Such]]''. Writing the "character sketch" as a scholastic exercise also originated in Theophrastus's typology.{{Citation needed|date=February 2021}}

=== On sensation ===
A treatise ''On Sense Perception'' ({{lang|grc|Περὶ αἰσθήσεων}}) and its objects is important for a knowledge of the doctrines of the more ancient Greek philosophers regarding the subject. A paraphrase and commentary on this work was written by [[Priscian of Lydia]] in the sixth century.<ref name="Long1842" /> With this type of work we may connect the fragments on ''Smells'', on ''Fatigue'', on ''Dizziness'', on ''Sweat'', on ''Swooning'', on ''Palsy'', and on ''Honey''.<ref name="SmithDGRBM" />

=== Physics ===
Fragments of a ''History of Physics'' ({{lang|grc|Περὶ φυσικῶν ἱστοριῶν}}) are extant. To this class of work belong the still extant sections on ''Fire'', on the ''Winds'', and on the signs of ''Waters'', ''Winds'', and ''Storms''.<ref>Probably out of the fourth book of the ''Meteorology'' ("ἐν τετάρτῃ περὶ μεταρσίων") of Theophrastus: see Plutarch, ''Quaest. Gr.'' vii.</ref>

Various smaller scientific fragments have been collected in the editions of [[Johann Gottlob Schneider]] (1818–21) and [[Christian Friedrich Heinrich Wimmer|Friedrich Wimmer]] (1842–62) and in [[Hermann Usener]]'s ''Analecta Theophrastea''.{{sfn|Wheeler|1911}}

=== Metaphysics ===
The ''Metaphysics'' (anachronistic Greek title: {{lang|grc|Θεοφράστου τῶν μετὰ τὰ φυσικά}}),<ref>[[Dimitri Gutas]] (ed.), [https://books.google.com/books?id=YdIIYCpEXHMC ''Theophrastus – On First Principles: known as His Metaphysics''], Brill, 2010, p. 10.</ref> in nine chapters (also known as ''On First Principles''), was considered a fragment of a larger work by Usener in his edition (Theophrastos<!--[sic]-->, ''Metaphysica'', Bonn, 1890), but according to Ross and Fobes in their edition (Theophrastus, ''Metaphysica'', Oxford, 1929), the treatise is complete (p.&nbsp;X) and this opinion is now widely accepted. There is no reason for assigning this work to some other author because it is not noticed in [[Hermippus of Smyrna|Hermippus]] and [[Andronicus of Rhodes|Andronicus]], especially as [[Nicolaus of Damascus]] had already mentioned it.<ref name="SmithDGRBM" />

=== On stones ===
In his treatise ''On Stones'' ({{lang|grc|Περὶ λίθων}}), which would become a source for other [[lapidary (text)|lapidaries]] until at least the [[Renaissance]],{{sfn|Walton|2001|pp=359–364}} Theophrastus classified rocks and gems based on their behavior when heated, further grouping minerals by common properties, such as [[amber]] and [[magnetite]], which both have the power of attraction.<ref name="Cuvier1830">{{harvnb|Cuvier|1830|pp=76–83}}.</ref><ref>{{harvnb|Richards|Caley|1956|p=238}}.</ref><ref>{{harvnb|Caley|1956}}.</ref>

Theophrastus describes different [[marble]]s; mentions [[coal]], which he says is used for heating by metal-workers; describes the various [[ore|metal ores]]; and knew that [[pumice|pumice stones]] had a [[volcanic]] origin. He also deals with precious stones, [[emeralds]], [[amethysts]], [[onyx]], [[jasper]], etc., and describes a variety of "sapphire" that was blue with veins of gold, and thus was presumably [[lapis lazuli]].<ref name="Cuvier1830" />

He knew that [[pearls]] came from [[shellfish]], that [[coral]] came from India, and speaks of the [[fossilized]] remains of organic life.<ref name="Cuvier1830" /> He also considers the practical uses of various stones, such as the minerals necessary for the manufacture of glass; for the production of various pigments of paint such as [[ochre]]; and for the manufacture of [[plaster]].<ref name="Cuvier1830" />

Many of the rarer minerals were found in mines, and Theophrastus mentions the famous [[copper]] mines of [[Cyprus]] and the even more famous [[silver mine]]s, presumably of [[Laurium]] near [[Athens]] – the basis of the wealth of the city – as well as referring to [[gold mines]]. The Laurium silver mines, which were the property of the state, were usually leased for a fixed sum and a percentage on the working. Towards the end of the fifth century BCE the output fell, partly owing to the [[Sparta]]n occupation of [[Decelea]] from {{circa | 413}} BCE. But the mines continued to be worked, though [[Strabo]] ({{circa | 64}} BCE to {{circa | 24}} CE) records that in his time the tailings were being worked over, and [[Pausanias (geographer)|Pausanias]] ({{circa | 110}} to {{circa | 180}}) speaks of the mines as a thing of the past. The ancient workings, consisting of shafts and galleries for excavating the ore, and washing tables for extracting the metal, may still be seen. Theophrastus wrote a separate work ''On Mining'',{{sfn|Laërtius|1925|loc=§&nbsp;44}} which – like most of his writings – is a [[Lost literary work|lost work]].

[[Pliny the Elder]] makes clear references to his use of ''On Stones'' in his ''[[Naturalis Historia]]'' of 77 AD, while updating and making much new information available on [[minerals]] himself. Although Pliny's treatment of the subject is more extensive, Theophrastus is more systematic and his work is comparatively free from fable and magic,{{sfn|Healy|1999|pp= 17–7}} although he did describe [[lyngurium]], a gemstone supposedly formed of the solidified urine of the [[lynx]] (the best ones coming from wild males), which featured in many lapidaries until it gradually disappeared from view in the 17th century.{{sfn|Walton|2001|loc= abstract & throughout}}
It is mistakenly attributed to Theophrastus the first record of pyroelectricity. The misconception arose soon after the discovery of the pyroelectric properties of [[tourmaline]], which made mineralogists of the time associate the ''[[lyngurium]]'' with it.<ref>Earle R. Caley and John F.C. Richards, ''Theophrastus: On Stones'' (Columbus, Ohio: Ohio State University, 1956), page 110, line 12 of the commentary: "Watson identifies the ''lyngounon'' of Theophrastus with tourmaline, but evidently his opinion is partly based on the attractive properties of heated tourmaline which had recently been discovered. This identification is repeated by various later writers. For example, Dana states that ''lyncurium'' is supposed to be the ancient name for common tourmaline. However, the absence of tourmaline among surviving examples of ancient gems is clearly against this view."</ref> [[Lyngurium]] is described in the work of Theophrastus as being similar to [[amber]], capable of attracting "straws and bits of wood", but without specifying any pyroelectric properties.<ref>Earle R. Caley and John F.C. Richards, ''Theophrastus: On Stones'' (Columbus, Ohio: Ohio State University, 1956), page 51, paragraph 28 of the original text: "It [''smaragdos''] is remarkable in its powers, and so is the ''lyngourion'' [i.e., lynx-urine stone] … . It has the power of attraction, just as amber has, and some say that it not only attracts straws and bits of wood, but also copper and iron, if the pieces are thin, as Diokles used to explain."</ref>