Editing Theognis of Megara (section)

==Work==

===Transmission===
It was probably his reputation as a moralist, significant enough to deserve comment by Aristotle and Plato, that guaranteed the survival of his work through the Byzantine period.<ref>B. M. Knox, 'Theognis', ''The Cambridge History of Greek Literature:I Greek Literature'', Cambridge University Press (1985), P. Easterling and B. Knox (ed.s), page 158</ref> However, it is clear that we do not possess his total output. The Byzantine [[Suda]], for example, mentions 2800 lines of elegiacs, twice the number preserved in medieval manuscripts. Different scholars have different theories about the transmission of the text to account for the discrepancy.<ref>David A. Campbell, ''Greek Lyric Poetry'', Bristol Classical Press (1982), page 346</ref> The surviving manuscripts of Theognis preserve an anthology of ancient elegy, including selections from other elegists such as [[Tyrtaeus]]; scholars disagree over which parts were written by Theognis.<ref>Douglas E. Gerber, ''Greek Elegiac Poetry'', Loeb Classical Library (1999), page 7</ref> The collection is preserved in more than forty manuscripts, comprising a continuous series of elegiac couplets that modern editors now separate into some 300 to 400 "poems", according to personal{{clarify|date=January 2019}} preferences.

The best of these manuscripts, dated to the early 10th century, includes an end section titled "Book 2" (sometimes referred to as ''Musa Paedica''), which features some hundred additional couplets and which "harps on the same theme throughout—boy love."<ref>B. M. Knox, 'Theognis', ''The Cambridge History of Greek Literature:I Greek Literature'', Cambridge University Press (1985), P. Easterling and B. Knox (ed.s), page 137</ref> The quality of the verse in the end section is radically diverse, ranging from "exquisite and simple beauty" to "the worst specimens of the bungler's art", and many scholars have rejected it as a spurious addition,<ref>Thomas Hudson-Williams, ''The Elegies of Theognis'', G. Bell and Sons Ltd (1910), pages 55–57</ref> including the philosopher Friedrich Nietzsche (see [[Theognis#Nietzsche and Theognis|Nietzsche and Theognis]] below). However, many modern scholars consider the verses of Book 2 an integral part of the collection.<ref>[[Andrew Lear|Lear, Andrew]], "The Pederastic Elegies and the Authorship of the Theognidea", Classical Quarterly 61 (2011), pages 378-93.</ref> The rest of the work also raises issues about authenticity, since some couplets look like lines attributed by ancient sources to other poets ([[Solon]], [[Euenus]], [[Mimnermus]] and Tyrtaeus).<ref group ="nb">Solon (lines 315–18, 585–90), Euenus (lines 467–96, 667–82, 1341–50), Mimnermus (lines 795–56, 1020–22) and Tyrtaeus (lines 1003–6),</ref> and other couplets are repeated with few or no changes elsewhere in the text.<ref group ="nb">Repeated lines: 87–90≈1082cf, 116≈644, 39–42≈1081–82b, 209–10≈332ab, 509–10≈211–12, 853–54≈1038ab, 877–78≈1070ab, 415–18≈1164eh, and including Book Two 1151–52≈1238ab.</ref> Ironically, Theognis mentions to his friend Cyrnus precautions that he has taken to ensure the fidelity of his legacy:
{{Quotation|"Cyrnus, as I compose my poems for you, let a seal be placed on the verses; if stolen they will never pass undetected nor will anyone exchange their present good content for worse, but everyone will say: ''They are the verses of Theognis of Megara, a name known to all mankind.''"{{emdash}}lines 19–23<ref>translated by B. M. Knox, 'Theognis', ''The Cambridge History of Greek Literature:I Greek Literature'', Cambridge University Press (1985), P. Easterling and B. Knox (ed.s), page 138–9</ref>}}
The nature of this seal and its effectiveness in preserving his work is much disputed by scholars (see [[Theognis#Modern scholarship|Modern scholarship]] below).

===Subject matter===
All the poetry attributed to Theognis deals with subjects typically discussed at aristocratic [[Symposium|symposia]]{{emdash}}drinking parties that had symbolic and practical significance for the participants:
{{quote|Authors as distant from each other as Theognis and Plato agree in seeing the symposium as a model for the city, a gathering where men may examine themselves in a playful but nonethless important way. Here we should note the repeated use of the word {{lang|grc|βάσανος}} ('touchstone', 'test': Theog. 415–18, 447–52, 1105–6, 1164; Pl. ''Laws'' 649d10, 650a2, 650b4) to describe the symposium. Moreover at the symposium poetry plays a significant part in teaching the participants the characteristics required of them to be good men.{{emdash}}N.T. Croally<ref>N.T. Croally, ''Euripidean Polemic: The Trojan Women and the function of tragedy'', Cambridge University Press (1994), pages 18–19</ref>}} [[File:Feuerbach symposium.jpg|right|thumb|upright=1.2|A scene from Plato's philosophical work [[The Symposium]] by Anselm Feuerbach]]

Sympotic topics covered by Theognis include wine,<ref group ="nb">Example of a wine-theme: "Two demons of drink beset wretched mortals, enfeebling thirst and harsh drunkenness. I'll steer a middle course between them and you won't persuade me either not to drink or to drink too much."{{emdash}}lines 837–40, translated by Douglas Gerber, ''Loeb'', page 295</ref> politics,<ref group ="nb">Example of political theme:"Cyrnus, this city is pregnant and I am afraid she will give birth to a man who will set right our wicked insolence. The townsmen are still of sound mind but their leaders have changed and fallen into the depths of depravity."{{emdash}}lines 39–42, translated by Douglas Gerber, ''Loeb'', page 181</ref> friendship,<ref group ="nb">Example of friendship theme: "Many in truth are your comrades when there's food and drink, but not so many when the enterprise is serious."{{emdash}}lines 115–16, translated by Douglas Gerber, ''Loeb'' page 189</ref> war,<ref group ="nb">Example of war theme: "This is excellence, this the best human prize and the fairest for a man to win. This is a common benefit for the state and all the people, whenever a man with firm stance holds his ground among the front ranks."{{emdash}}lines 1003–6 (also attributed to [[Tyrtaeus]]), translated by Douglas Gerber, ''Loeb'' page 319</ref> life's brevity,<ref group ="nb">Example of [[carpe diem]] theme: "Enjoy your youth, my dear heart: soon it will be the turn of other men, and I'll be dead and become dark earth."{{emdash}}lines 877–78, translated by Douglas Gerber, ''Loeb'', page 301</ref> human nature,<ref group ="nb">Example of human nature theme: "It is easier to beget and rear a man than to put good sense in him. No one has yet devised a means whereby one has made the fool wise and a noble man out of one who is base."{{emdash}}lines 429–31, translated by Douglas Gerber, ''Loeb'' page 237</ref> wealth<ref group ="nb">Example of Wealth theme: "O wretched poverty, why do you delay to leave me and go to another man? Don't be attached to me against my will, but go, visit another house, and don't always share this miserable life with me.{{emdash}}lines 351–54, translated by Douglas Gerber, ''Loeb'' page 225</ref> and love.<ref group ="nb">Example of a love theme: "Don't show affection for me in your words but keep your mind and heart elsewhere, if you love me and the mind within you is loyal. Either love me sincerely or renounce me, hate me and quarrel openly,"{{emdash}}lines 87–90, translated by Douglas Gerber, ''Loeb'' page 187</ref> Distinctions are frequently made between "good" ({{lang|grc|ἐσθλοί}}) and "bad" ({{lang|grc|κακοί}}), a dichotomy based on a class distinction between aristocrats and "others", typical of the period but usually implicit in the works of earlier poets such as Homer—"In Theognis it amounts to an obsession".<ref>Gerald F. Else, ''Aristotle's Poetics: The Argument'', Harvard University Press (1957), page 75</ref> The verses are addressed to Cyrnus and other individuals of unknown identity, such as Scythes, Simonides, Clearistus, Onomacritus, Democles, Academus, Timagoras, Demonax and Argyris and "Boy". Poems are also addressed to his own heart or spirit, and deities such as [[Zeus]], [[Apollo]], [[Artemis]], [[Castor and Pollux]], [[Eros]], [[Ploutos]], the [[Muses]] and [[Graces]].

Theognis also details the heightened political tensions within Megara during the seventh century. His works depict the arrival of "other men" that have challenged and displaced former members of the elite.<ref>Mackil, Emily, "Tyrtaeus and Theognis", Lecture, September 11, 2018</ref> His works, particularly lines 53-58, demonstrate that increasing urbanization among the rural populace surrounding Megara has resulted in heightened social pressures within the city. His writings are thought by modern scholars to largely represent the aristocratic viewpoint of the Megarian elite. However, it is difficult for modern scholars to ascertain both Theognis' position in Megarian society and his role in writing these lines due to possible later additions to his works and the confusion surrounding his origins.

===Poetic style===
Theognis wrote in the archaic [[Elegy|elegiac]] style. An "elegy" in English is associated with lamentation. In ancient Greece it was a much more flexible medium, suitable for performance at drinking parties and public festivals, urging courage in war and surrender in love. It gave the [[hexameter]] line of epic verse a lyrical impulse by the addition of a shorter "pentameter" line, in a series of couplets accompanied by the music of the [[aulos]] or pipe.<ref>Douglas E. Gerber, ''Greek Elegiac Poetry'', Loeb Classical Library (1999), page 1–3</ref> Theognis was conservative and unadventurous in his use of language, frequently imitating the epic phrasing of [[Homer]], even using his Ionian dialect rather than the Dorian spoken in Megara, and possibly borrowing  inspiration and entire lines from other elegiac poets, such as Tyrtaeus, Mimnermus and Solon. His verses are not always melodious or carefully constructed but he often places key words for good effect and he employs linguistic devices such as [[asyndeton]], familiar in common speech.<ref>David A. Campbell, ''Greek Lyric Poetry'', Bristol Classical Press (1982), pages 346–47</ref> He was capable of arresting imagery and memorable statements in the form of terse epigrams.<ref>David Mulroy, ''Early Greek Lyric Poetry'', The University of Michigan Press (1992), page 171</ref> Some of these qualities are evident in the following lines [425-8], considered to be "the classic formulation of Greek pessimism":<ref>B. M. Knox, 'Theognis', ''The Cambridge History of Greek Literature:I Greek Literature'', Cambridge University Press (1985), P. Easterling and B. Knox (ed.s), page 144</ref>
{{Verse translation|italicsoff=y|
{{lang|grc|Πάντων&nbsp;μὲν&nbsp;μὴ&nbsp;φῦναι&nbsp;ἐπιχθονίοισιν&nbsp;ἄριστον,<br>
μηδ᾽ ἐσιδεῖν αὐγὰς ὀξέος ἠελίου.<br>
φύντα δ᾽ ὅπως ὤκιστα πύλας Ἀΐδαο περῆσαι<br>
καὶ κεῖσθαι πολλὴν γῆν ἐπαμησάμενον.}}<ref>Theognis 425–8, cited by Douglas E. Gerber, ''Greek Elegiac Poetry'', Loeb Classical Library (1999), page 234</ref>
|
Best of all for mortal beings is never to have been born at all
:Nor ever to have set eyes on the bright light of the sun
But, since he is born, a man should make utmost haste through the gates of Death
:And then repose, the earth piled into a mound round himself.}}

The lines were much quoted in antiquity, as for example by [[Stobaeus]] and [[Sextus Empiricus]], and it was imitated by later poets, such as [[Sophocles]] and [[Bacchylides]].<ref group ="nb">Stobaeus 4.52, Sextus Empiricus ''Pyrrh. hypot.'' 3.231, Sophocles ''O.C'' 1225 and Bacchylides 5.160–2{{emdash}}cited by David Campbell, ''Greek Lyric Poetry'' page 366</ref> Theognis himself might be imitating others: each of the longer hexameter lines is loosely paraphrased in the shorter pentameter lines, as if he borrowed the longer lines from some unknown source(s) and added the shorter lines to create an elegiac version.<ref>Douglas E. Gerber, ''Greek Elegiac Poetry'', Loeb Classical Library (1999), note 1 page 235</ref> Moreover, the last line could be imitating an image from Homer's ''[[Odyssey]]'' (5.482), where Odysseus covers himself with leaves though some scholars think the key word {{lang|grc|ἐπαμησάμενον}} might be corrupted.<ref>Thomas Hudson-Williams, ''The elegies of Theognis and other elegies included in the Theognidean sylloge'' (1910), note 428 pages 205–6</ref><ref>see also J. M. Edmonds (ed.), ''Elegiac Poems of Theognis'', ''Elegy and Iambus'' Vol.1, note 103, [https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A2008.01.0479%3Avolume%3D1%3Atext%3D11%3Asection%3D2#note103 Persus Digital Library]</ref><ref group ="nb">
{{lang|grc|... δοιοὺς δ' ἄρ' ὑπήλυθε θάμνους}} <br>
{{lang|grc|ἐξ ὁμόθεν πεφυῶτας· ὁ μὲν φυλίης, ὁ δ' ἐλαίης.}}<br>
{{lang|grc|τοὺς μὲν ἄρ' οὔτ' ἀνέμων διάη μένος ὑγρὸν ἀέντων,}}<br>
{{lang|grc|οὔτε ποτ' ἠέλιος φαέθων ἀκτῖσιν ἔβαλλεν,}}<br>
{{lang|grc|οὔτ' ὄμβρος περάασκε διαμπερές· ὣς ἄρα πυκνοὶ}}<br>
{{lang|grc|ἀλλήλοισιν ἔφυν ἐπαμοιβαδίς· οὓς ὑπ' Ὀδυσσεὺς}}<br>
{{lang|grc|δύσετ'. ἄφαρ δ' εὐνὴν ἐπαμήσατο χερσὶ φίλῃσιν}}<br>
{{lang|grc|εὐρεῖαν· φύλλων γὰρ ἔην χύσις ἤλιθα πολλή}}<br>
Odyssey 5.476–83</ref> The smothering accumulation of eta ({{lang|grc|η}}) sounds in the last line of the Greek is imitated here in the English by ''mound round''.