Editing Tacitus on Jesus (section)

==Points of vocabulary==

===Christians and Chrestians===
[[File:Highlight of MII.png|thumb|180px|Detail from the page of the Codex Laurentianus Mediceus 68.2 (f. 38''r'') containing ''Annales'' xv. 44.4: in the word 'Christianos' the gap between the 'i' and 's' is highlighted]]

The passage states:

{{blockquote|...&nbsp;called Christians by the populace. Christus, from whom the name had its origin&nbsp;...}}

In 1902 Georg Andresen commented on the appearance of the first 'i' and subsequent gap in the earliest extant, 11th century, copy of the ''Annals'' in [[Florence]], suggesting that the text had been altered, and an 'e' had originally been in the text, rather than this 'i'.<ref>[[Georg Andresen]] in ''Wochenschrift fur klassische Philologie'' 19, 1902, col. 780f</ref> "With ultra-violet examination of the MS the alteration was conclusively shown. It is impossible today to say who altered the letter ''e'' into an ''i''."<ref name="Boman">J. Boman, ''[http://brepols.metapress.com/content/y4m58q8x60600153/ Inpulsore Cherestro? Suetonius' Divus Claudius 25.4 in Sources and Manuscripts] {{Webarchive|url=https://archive.today/20130104012946/http://brepols.metapress.com/content/y4m58q8x60600153/ |date=2013-01-04 }}'', Liber Annuus 61 (2011), ISSN 0081-8933, [[Studium Biblicum Franciscanum]], Jerusalem 2012, p. 355, n. 2.</ref> Since the alteration became known it has given rise to debates among scholars as to whether Tacitus deliberately used the term "Chrestians", or if a scribe made an error during the [[Middle Ages]].{{sfn|Van Voorst|2000|p=44-48}}{{sfn|Bromiley|1995|p=657}} It has been stated that both the terms Christians and Chrestians had at times been used by the general population in Rome to refer to early Christians.<ref name=Lampe12 >''Christians at Rome in the First Two Centuries'' by Peter Lampe 2006 {{ISBN|0-8264-8102-7}} page 12</ref> [[Robert E. Van Voorst]] states that many sources indicate that the term Chrestians was also used among the early followers of Jesus by the second century.{{sfn|Bromiley|1995|p=657}}{{sfn|Van Voorst|2000|p=33-35}} The term Christians appears only three times in the [[New Testament]], the first usage ([[wikisource:Bible (American Standard)/Acts#11:26|Acts 11:26]]) giving the origin of the term.{{sfn|Bromiley|1995|p=657}} In all three cases the uncorrected [[Codex Sinaiticus]] in Greek reads ''Chrestianoi''.{{sfn|Bromiley|1995|p=657}}{{sfn|Van Voorst|2000|p=33-35}} In [[Phrygia]] a number of funerary stone inscriptions use the term Chrestians, with one stone inscription using both terms together, reading: "''Chrestians for Christians''".{{sfn|Van Voorst|2000|p=33-35}}

[[Adolf von Harnack]] argued that Chrestians was the original wording, and that Tacitus deliberately used ''Christus'' immediately after it to show his own superior knowledge compared to the population at large.{{sfn|Bromiley|1995|p=657}} Robert Renehan has stated that it was natural for a Roman to mix the two words that sounded the same, that Chrestianos was the original word in the ''Annals'' and not an error by a scribe.<ref name="Robert Renehan 1968 pp. 368-370">Robert Renehan, "Christus or Chrestus in Tacitus?", La Parola del Passato 122 (1968), pp. 368-370</ref><ref>''Transactions and proceedings of the American Philological Association'', Volume 29, JSTOR (Organization), 2007. p vii</ref> Van Voorst has stated that it was unlikely for Tacitus himself to refer to Christians as Chrestianos i.e. "useful ones" given that he also referred to them as "hated for their shameful acts".{{sfn|Van Voorst|2000|p=44-48}} Eddy and Boyd see no major impact on the authenticity of the passage or its meaning regardless of the use of either term by Tacitus.{{sfn|Eddy|Boyd|2007|p=181}}

Whatever the original wording of Tacitus, another ancient source about the Neronian persecution, by [[Suetonius]], apparently speaks of "Christians": "In Suetonius' ''Nero 16.2'', '{{lang|la|christiani|italic=no}}', however, seems to be the original reading."<ref name="Boman" />

===The rank of Pilate===
[[File:Pilate Inscription.JPG|thumb|220px|The [[Pilate Stone]], now at the [[Israel Museum]]]]
Pilate's rank while he was governor of [[Judaea (Roman province)|Judaea]] appeared in a Latin inscription on the [[Pilate Stone]] which called him a [[prefect]], while this Tacitean passage calls him a [[Procurator (ancient Rome)|procurator]]. [[Josephus]] refers to Pilate with the generic Greek term {{lang|grc|ἡγεμών}} ({{Transliteration|grc|hēgemṓn}}), or governor. Tacitus records that [[Claudius]] was the ruler who gave procurators governing power.<ref>Tacitus, Annals 12.60: Claudius said that the judgments of his procurators had the same efficacy as those judgments he made.</ref><ref>P. A. Brunt, ''Roman imperial themes'', Oxford University Press, 1990, {{ISBN|0-19-814476-8}}, {{ISBN|978-0-19-814476-2}}. p.167.</ref> After [[Herod Agrippa]]'s death in AD 44, when Judea reverted to direct Roman rule, Claudius gave procurators control over Judea.{{sfn|Brent|2009|p=32-34}}<ref>Tacitus, Histories 5.9.8.</ref>{{sfn|Bromiley|1995|p=979}}<ref>''Paul, apostle of the heart set free'' by F. F. Bruce (2000) {{ISBN|1842270273}} Eerdsmans page 354</ref><!-- D. B. Saddington states that at the time Tacitus wrote, the title prefect had given way to procurator for governors of smaller imperial provinces.<ref>D. B. Saddington, in ''Rise and Decline of the Roman World: Pt.2'' edited by Wolfgang Haase (Nov 22, 1996) ISBN 3110150069 page 2426.</ref> -->

Various theories have been put forward to explain why Tacitus should use the term "procurator" when the archaeological evidence indicates that Pilate was a prefect. Jerry Vardaman theorizes that Pilate's title was changed during his stay in Judea and that the Pilate Stone dates from the early years of his administration.<ref>"A New Inscription Which Mentions Pilate as 'Prefect{{'"}}, ''JBL'' 81/1 (1962), p. 71.</ref> [[Baruch Lifshitz]] postulates that the inscription would originally have mentioned the title of "procurator" along with "prefect".<ref>"Inscriptions latines de Cesaree (Caesarea Palaestinae)" in ''Latomus'' 22 (1963), pp. 783–4.</ref> L.A. Yelnitsky argues that the use of "procurator" in ''Annals'' 15.44.3 is a [[Christian interpolation]].<ref>"The Caesarea Inscription of Pontius Pilate and Its Historical Significance" in ''Vestnik Drevnej Istorii'' 93 (1965), pp.142–6.</ref> S.G.F. Brandon suggests that there is no real difference between the two ranks.<ref>"Pontius Pilate in history and legend" in ''History Today'' 18 (1968), pp. 523—530</ref> [[John Dominic Crossan]] states that Tacitus "retrojected" the title procurator which was in use at the time of [[Claudius]] back onto Pilate who was called prefect in his own time.{{sfn|Crossan|1999|p=9}} [[Bruce Chilton]] and [[Craig A. Evans|Craig Evans]] as well as Van Voorst state that Tacitus apparently used the title ''procurator'' because it was more common at the time of his writing and that this variation in the use of the title should not be taken as evidence to doubt the correctness of the information Tacitus provides.<ref name=ChilEvans465 />{{sfn|Van Voorst|2000|p=48}} [[Warren Carter]] states that, as the term "prefect" has a military connotation, while "procurator" is civilian, the use of either term may be appropriate for governors who have a range of military, administrative and fiscal responsibilities.<ref>''Pontius Pilate: Portraits of a Roman Governor'' by Warren Carter (Sep 1, 2003) {{ISBN|0814651135}} page 44</ref>

[[Louis Feldman]] says that [[Philo]] (who died AD 50) and [[Josephus]] also use the term "procurator" for Pilate.{{sfn|Feldman|1997|p=818}} As both Philo and Josephus wrote in Greek, neither of them actually used the term "procurator", but the Greek word {{lang|grc|ἐπίτροπος}} ({{Transliteration|grc|epítropos}}), which is regularly translated as "procurator". Philo also uses this Greek term for the governors of [[Aegyptus (Roman province)|Egypt]] (a prefect), of [[Asia (Roman province)|Asia]] (a proconsul) and [[Syria (Roman province)|Syria]] (a legate).<ref>''Matthew and Empire: Initial Explorations'' by Warren Carter (T&T Clark: October 10, 2001) {{ISBN|978-1563383427}} p. 215.</ref> Werner Eck, in his list of terms for governors of Judea found in the works of Josephus, shows that, while in the early work, ''[[The Jewish War]]'', Josephus uses ''epitropos'' less consistently, the first governor to be referred to by the term in ''[[Antiquities of the Jews]]'' was [[Cuspius Fadus]], (who was in office AD 44–46).<ref>Werner Eck, "{{lang|de|Die Benennung von römischen Amtsträgern und politisch-militärisch-administrativenFunktionen bei Flavius Iosephus: Probleme der korrekten IdentifizierungAuthor|italic=no}}" in {{lang|de|Zeitschrift für Papyrologie und Epigraphik}}, 166 (2008), p. 222.</ref> Feldman notes that Philo, Josephus and Tacitus may have anachronistically confused the timing of the titles—prefect later changing to procurator.{{sfn|Feldman|1997|p=818}} Feldman also notes that the use of the titles may not have been rigid, for Josephus refers to Cuspius Fadus both as "prefect" and "procurator".{{sfn|Feldman|1997|p=818}}