Editing Sudan (section)

== History ==
{{Main|History of Sudan}}
{{For timeline|Timeline of Sudanese history}}

=== Prehistoric Sudan (before c. 8000 BC) ===
[[File:Western Deffufa - Kerma.jpg|thumb|The large mud brick temple, known as the Western Deffufa, in the ancient city of [[Kerma]]]]
[[File:Fortress of the Middle Kingdom, reconstructed under the New Kingdom ( about 1200 B.C.).jpg|thumb|Fortress of [[Buhen]], of the Middle Kingdom, reconstructed under the New Kingdom (about 1200 BC)]]

[[Affad 23]] is an [[archaeological site]] located in the [[Affad Basin|Affad]] region of southern Dongola Reach in northern Sudan,<ref name="Osypiński">{{cite journal |last1=Osypiński |first1=Piotr |last2=Osypińska |first2=Marta |last3=Gautier |first3=Achilles |title=Affad 23, a Late Middle Palaeolithic Site With Refitted Lithics and Animal Remains in the Southern Dongola Reach, Sudan |journal=Journal of African Archaeology |date=2011 |volume=9 |issue=2 |pages=177–188 |doi=10.3213/2191-5784-10186 |jstor=43135549 }}</ref> which hosts "the well-preserved remains of prehistoric camps (relics of the oldest [[Natural environment|open-air]] [[hut]] in the world) and diverse [[hunting]] and [[Hunter-gatherer|gathering]] loci some 50,000 years old".<ref name="Osypiński II">{{cite web |last1=Osypiński |first1=Piotr |title=Unearthing Pan-African crossroad? Significance of the middle Nile valley in prehistory |url=https://projekty.ncn.gov.pl/opisy/480275-en.pdf |publisher=National Science Centre |date=2020 |access-date=1 August 2023 |archive-date=1 August 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230801081130/https://projekty.ncn.gov.pl/opisy/480275-en.pdf |url-status=dead }}</ref><ref name="Osypińska">{{cite book |last1=Osypińska |first1=Marta |title=From Faras to Soba: 60 years of Sudanese–Polish cooperation in saving the heritage of Sudan |date=2021 |publisher=Polish Centre of Mediterranean Archaeology/University of Warsaw |isbn=9788395336256 |oclc=1374884636 |page=460 |chapter-url=https://depot.ceon.pl/bitstream/handle/123456789/21580/Katalog%20wystawy%20From%20Faras%20to%20Soba%20-%20ONLINE%20o2.pdf?sequence=1&isAllowed=y |chapter=Animals in the history of the Middle Nile}}</ref><ref name="Osypińska II">{{cite book |last1=Osypińska |first1=Marta |last2=Osypiński |first2=Piotr |title=From Faras to Soba: 60 years of Sudanese–Polish cooperation in saving the heritage of Sudan |date=2021 |publisher=Polish Centre of Mediterranean Archaeology/University of Warsaw |isbn=9788395336256 |oclc=1374884636 |pages=187–188 |chapter-url=https://depot.ceon.pl/bitstream/handle/123456789/21580/Katalog%20wystawy%20From%20Faras%20to%20Soba%20-%20ONLINE%20o2.pdf?sequence=1&isAllowed=y |chapter=Exploring the oldest huts and the first cattle keepers in Africa}}</ref>

By the eighth millennium BC, people of a [[Neolithic]] culture had settled into a sedentary way of life there in fortified [[mudbrick]] villages, where they supplemented hunting and fishing on the Nile with grain gathering and cattle herding.<ref name=locearlyhist>{{cite web|url=http://countrystudies.us/sudan |title=Sudan A Country Study |publisher=Countrystudies.us}}</ref> Neolithic peoples created cemeteries such as [[R12 (cemetery)|R12]]. During the fifth millennium BC, migrations from the drying Sahara brought neolithic people into the Nile Valley along with agriculture.

The population that resulted from this cultural and genetic mixing developed a social hierarchy over the next centuries which became the [[Kingdom of Kerma]] at 2500 BC. Anthropological and archaeological research indicates that during the predynastic period Nubia and Nagadan Upper Egypt were ethnically and culturally nearly identical, and thus, simultaneously evolved systems of pharaonic kingship by 3300 BC.<ref name="Keita, S.O.Y. 1993 129–54">{{cite journal|title = Studies and Comments on Ancient Egyptian Biological Relationships| author = Keita, S.O.Y. |year = 1993| journal=History in Africa|volume=20| issue = 7 |pages=129–54|jstor=317196|doi = 10.2307/3171969| s2cid = 162330365 }}</ref>

=== Kerma culture (2500–1500 BC) ===
{{Main|Kerma culture}}

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| header            = Kerma culture<br /><small>(c.2500 BC–c.1550 BC)</small>
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| caption1          = Kerma bowl, 1700–1550 BC. [[Museum of Fine Arts, Boston]]
| image2            = Exposition Nubia, Land of the Black Pharaohs – Mirror. Kerma Period, 1700-1550 BC.jpg
| caption2          = Mirror. End of [[Kerma culture|Kerma Period]], 1700–1550 BC. Museum of Fine Arts, Boston
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The Kerma culture was an early civilization centered in [[Kerma]], Sudan. It flourished from around 2500 BC to 1500 BC in ancient [[Nubia]]. The Kerma culture was based in the southern part of Nubia, or "[[Upper Nubia]]" (in parts of present-day northern and central Sudan), and later extended its reach northward into Lower Nubia and the border of Egypt.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1= Hafsaas-Tsakos |first1= Henriette |title= The Kingdom of Kush: An African Centre on the Periphery of the Bronze Age World System |journal= Norwegian Archaeological Review |date=2009 |volume=42 |issue=1 |pages= 50–70 |doi= 10.1080/00293650902978590 |s2cid= 154430884 |url= https://www.academia.edu/2380609 }}</ref> The polity seems to have been one of several [[Nile Valley]] states during the [[Middle Kingdom of Egypt]]. In the Kingdom of Kerma's latest phase, lasting from about 1700–1500 BC, it absorbed the Sudanese kingdom of [[Saï (island)|Saï]] and became a sizable, populous empire rivaling Egypt.

=== Egyptian Nubia (1504–1070 BC) ===
[[File:Nubian Prince Hekanefer bringing tribute for King Tut, 18th dynasty, Tomb of Huy.jpg|thumb|Nubian Prince [[Heqanefer]] bringing tribute for The Egyptian King [[Tutankhamun]], 18th dynasty, Tomb of Huy. {{Circa|1342}} – {{Circa| 1325}} BC]] [[Mentuhotep II]], the 21st century BC founder of the [[Middle Kingdom of Egypt|Middle Kingdom]], is recorded to have undertaken campaigns against Kush in the 29th and 31st years of his reign. This is the earliest Egyptian reference to ''Kush''; the [[Nubia]]n region had gone by other names in the Old Kingdom.<ref>''Historical Dictionary of Ancient and Medieval Nubia'', Richard A. Lobban Jr., p. 254.</ref> Under [[Thutmose I]], Egypt made several campaigns south.

The Egyptians ruled Kush in the New kingdom beginning when the Egyptian King Thutmose I occupied Kush and destroyed its capital, Kerma.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia |last=De Mola |first=Paul J. |title=Interrelations of Kerma and Pharaonic Egypt |encyclopedia=Ancient History Encyclopedia |url=https://www.worldhistory.org/article/487/ |date=14 March 2013 |access-date=3 May 2025}}</ref>

This eventually resulted in their annexation of Nubia {{Circa|1504 BC}}. Around 1500 BC, Nubia was absorbed into the [[New Kingdom of Egypt]], but rebellions continued for centuries. After the conquest, Kerma culture was increasingly Egyptianized, yet rebellions continued for 220 years until {{Circa|1300 BC}}. Nubia nevertheless became a key province of the New Kingdom, economically, politically, and spiritually. Indeed, major pharaonic ceremonies were held at Jebel Barkal near Napata.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.jebelbarkal.org/|title=Jebal Barkal: History and Archaeology of Ancient Napata|access-date=21 March 2012|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130602094858/http://jebelbarkal.org/|archive-date=2 June 2013|url-status=dead}}</ref> As an Egyptian colony from the 16th century BC, Nubia ("Kush") was governed by an Egyptian [[Viceroy of Kush]].

Resistance to the early eighteenth Dynasty Egyptian rule by neighboring Kush is evidenced in the writings of [[Ahmose, son of Ebana]], an Egyptian warrior who served under Nebpehtrya Ahmose (1539–1514 BC), Djeserkara Amenhotep I (1514–1493 BC), and Aakheperkara Thutmose I (1493–1481 BC). At the end of the [[Second Intermediate Period of Egypt|Second Intermediate Period]] (mid-sixteenth century BC), Egypt faced the twin existential threats—the [[Hyksos]] in the North and the Kushites in the South. Taken from the autobiographical inscriptions on the walls of his tomb-chapel, the Egyptians undertook campaigns to defeat Kush and conquer Nubia under the rule of [[Amenhotep I]] (1514–1493 BC). In Ahmose's writings, the Kushites are described as [[archery|archers]], "Now after his Majesty had slain the Bedoin of Asia, he sailed upstream to [[Upper Nubia]] to destroy the Nubian bowmen."<ref>{{Cite book|title=Writings from Ancient Egypt|last=Wilkinson|first=Toby|publisher=Penguin Classics|year=2016|isbn=978-0-14-139595-1|location=United Kingdom|pages=19}}</ref> The tomb writings contain two other references to the Nubian bowmen of Kush. By 1200 BC, Egyptian involvement in the [[Dongola Reach]] was nonexistent.

Egypt's international prestige had declined considerably towards the end of the [[Third Intermediate Period of Egypt|Third Intermediate Period]]. Its historical allies, the inhabitants of [[Canaan]], had fallen to the [[Middle Assyrian Empire]] (1365–1020 BC), and then the resurgent [[Neo-Assyrian Empire]] (935–605 BC). The [[Assyrian people|Assyrians]], from the tenth century BC onwards, had once more expanded from northern [[Mesopotamia]], and conquered a vast empire, including the whole of the [[Near East]], and much of [[Anatolia]], the eastern [[Mediterranean]], the [[Caucasus]] and [[History of Iran#Early Iron Age|early Iron Age Iran]].

According to Josephus Flavius, the biblical Moses led the Egyptian army in a siege of the Kushite city of Meroe. To end the siege Princess Tharbis was given to Moses as a (diplomatic) bride, and thus the Egyptian army retreated back to Egypt.<ref>Flavius Josephus. 'Antiquities of the Jews'. Whiston 2-10-2.</ref>

=== Kingdom of Kush (c. 1070 BC–350 AD) ===
{{main|Kingdom of Kush|Twenty-fifth Dynasty of Egypt}}
[[File:Sudan Meroe Pyramids 2001.JPG|thumb|[[Nubian pyramids]] in [[Meroë]]]]
[[File:Xerxes detail Ethiopian.jpg|thumb|''Kušiya'' soldier of the [[Achaemenid army]], {{circa|480&nbsp;BCE}}. [[Xerxes I]] tomb relief.]]

The [[Kingdom of Kush]] was an ancient [[Nubia]]n state centred on the confluences of the [[Blue Nile]] and [[White Nile]], and the [[Atbarah River]] and the [[Nile|Nile River]]. It was established after the [[Bronze Age]] collapse and the disintegration of the [[New Kingdom of Egypt]]; it was centred at Napata in its early phase.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Edwards, David N.|title=Nubian Past : an Archaeology of the Sudan.|date=2005|publisher=Taylor & Francis|isbn=978-0-203-48276-6|oclc=437079538}}</ref>

After King [[Kashta]] ("the Kushite") invaded Egypt in the eighth century BC, the Kushite kings ruled as pharaohs of the [[Twenty-fifth Dynasty of Egypt]] for nearly a century before being defeated and driven out by the [[Assyria]]ns.<ref name=Kelsey/> At the height of their glory, the Kushites conquered an empire that stretched from what is now known as [[South Kordofan]] to the Sinai. Pharaoh [[Piye]] attempted to expand the empire into the Near East but was thwarted by the Assyrian king [[Sargon II]].

Between 800 BCE and 100 AD the [[Nubian pyramids]] were built, among them can be named [[El-Kurru]], [[Kashta]], [[Piye]], [[Tantamani]], [[Shabaka]], Pyramids of [[Jebel Barkal|Gebel Barkal]], [[Pyramids of Meroe (Begarawiyah)]], the [[Sedeinga pyramids]], and [[Nuri|Pyramids of Nuri]].<ref name=":1">{{Cite book |last1=Takacs |first1=Sarolta Anna |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=SPcvCgAAQBAJ&q=%22in+fact%2C+there+are+twice+as+many+Nubian+pyramids%22&pg=PA15 |title=The Ancient World |last2=Cline |first2=Eric H. |date=17 July 2015 |publisher=[[Routledge]] |isbn=978-1-317-45839-5 |language=en}}</ref>

The Kingdom of Kush is mentioned in the Bible as having saved the Israelites from the wrath of the Assyrians, although disease among the besiegers might have been one of the reasons for the failure to take the city.<ref>{{cite book|author=Roux, Georges |title=Ancient Iraq|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=klZX8B_RzzYC|date= 1992|publisher=Penguin Books Limited|isbn=978-0-14-193825-7}}</ref>{{page needed|date=June 2013}}
The war that took place between Pharaoh [[Taharqa]] and the Assyrian king [[Sennacherib]] was a decisive event in western history, with the Nubians being defeated in their attempts to gain a foothold in the [[Near East]] by Assyria. Sennacherib's successor [[Esarhaddon]] went further and invaded Egypt itself to secure his control of the Levant. This succeeded, as he managed to expel Taharqa from Lower Egypt. Taharqa fled back to Upper Egypt and Nubia, where he died two years later. Lower Egypt came under Assyrian vassalage but proved unruly, unsuccessfully rebelling against the Assyrians. Then, the king [[Tantamani]], a successor of Taharqa, made a final determined attempt to regain Lower Egypt from the newly reinstated Assyrian vassal [[Necho I]]. He managed to retake [[Memphis, Egypt|Memphis]] killing Necho in the process and besieged cities in the Nile Delta. [[Ashurbanipal]], who had succeeded Esarhaddon, sent a large army in Egypt to regain control. He routed Tantamani near Memphis and, pursuing him, [[Sack of Thebes|sacked Thebes]]. Although the Assyrians immediately departed Upper Egypt after these events, weakened, Thebes peacefully submitted itself to Necho's son [[Psamtik I]] less than a decade later. This ended all hopes of a revival of the Nubian Empire, which rather continued in the form of a smaller kingdom centred on [[Napata]]. The city was raided by the Egyptian {{circa}} 590 BC, and sometime soon after to the late-3rd century BC, the Kushite resettled in [[Meroë]].<ref name=Kelsey>{{cite book|chapter=A Cultural History of Kush: Politics, Economy, and Ritual Practice|url=https://lsa.umich.edu/content/dam/kelsey-assets/kelsey-publications/pdfs/Graffiti-as-Devotion.pdf|title=Graffiti as Devotion along the Nile and Beyond|last1=Emberling|first1=Geoff|last2=Davis|first2=Suzanne|publisher=[[Kelsey Museum of Archaeology]]|date=2019|access-date=3 November 2021|pages=5–6, 10–11|isbn=978-0-9906623-9-6}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=lh4GBNLsCUsC|title=Forgotten Africa: An Introduction to Its Archaeology|last=Connah|first=Graham|publisher=[[Routledge]]|date=2004|access-date=3 November 2021|pages=52–53|isbn=0-415-30590-X}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|title=Semantic Shift on a Geographical Term|last=Unseth|first=Peter|journal=[[The Bible Translator]]|date=1 July 1998|volume=49|issue=3|pages=323–324|doi=10.1177/026009359804900302|s2cid=131916337}}</ref>

=== Medieval Christian Nubian kingdoms (c. 350–1500) ===
{{main|Nobatia|Makuria|Alodia|Daju kingdom}}
[[File:Christian Nubia.png|thumb|upright=0.8|The three Christian Nubian kingdoms. The northern border of [[Alodia]] is unclear, but it also might have been located further north, between the fourth and fifth [[Cataracts of the Nile|Nile cataract]].{{sfn|Welsby|2002|p=26}}]]
On the turn of the fifth century the [[Blemmyes]] established a short-lived state in Upper Egypt and Lower Nubia, probably centred around Talmis ([[Kalabsha]]), but before 450 they were already driven out of the Nile Valley by the Nobatians. The latter eventually founded a kingdom on their own, [[Nobatia]].{{sfn|Welsby|2002|pp=16–22}}
By the sixth century there were in total three Nubian kingdoms: Nobatia in the north, which had its capital at Pachoras ([[Faras]]); the central kingdom, [[Makuria]] centred at Tungul ([[Old Dongola]]), about {{convert|13|km|mi|abbr=off|0}} south of modern [[Dongola]]; and [[Alodia]], in the heartland of the old Kushitic kingdom, which had its capital at [[Soba (city)|Soba]] (now a suburb of modern-day Khartoum).{{sfn|Welsby|2002|pp=24, 26}} Still in the sixth century they converted to Christianity.{{sfn|Welsby|2002|pp=16–17}} In the seventh century, probably at some point between 628 and 642, Nobatia was incorporated into Makuria.{{sfn|Werner|2013|p=77}}

Between 639 and 641 the Muslim Arabs of the [[Rashidun Caliphate]] [[Muslim conquest of Egypt|conquered]] [[Byzantine Empire|Byzantine]] Egypt. In [[First Battle of Dongola|641 or 642]] and again in [[Second Battle of Dongola|652]] they invaded Nubia but were repelled, making the Nubians one of the few who managed to defeat the Arabs during the [[Islamic expansion]]. Afterward the Makurian king and the Arabs agreed on a [[Baqt|unique non-aggression pact that also included an annual exchange of gifts]], thus acknowledging Makuria's independence.{{sfn|Welsby|2002|pp=68–70}} While the Arabs failed to conquer Nubia they began to settle east of the Nile, where they eventually founded several port towns{{sfn|Hasan|1967|p=31}} and intermarried with the local [[Beja people|Beja]].{{sfn|Welsby|2002|pp=77–78}}
[[File:King Moses George of Makuria.jpg|thumb|upright=0.8|[[Moses Georgios of Makuria|Moses George]], king of Makuria and Alodia]]
From the mid eighth to mid eleventh century the political power and cultural development of Christian Nubia peaked.{{sfn|Shinnie|1978|p=572}} In 747 Makuria invaded Egypt, which at this time belonged to the declining [[Umayyad dynasty|Umayyads]],{{sfn|Werner|2013|p=84}} and it did so again in the early 960s, when it pushed as far north as [[Akhmim]].{{sfn|Werner|2013|p=101}} Makuria maintained close dynastic ties with Alodia, perhaps resulting in the temporary unification of the two kingdoms into one state.{{sfn|Welsby|2002|p=89}} The culture of the medieval Nubians has been described as "''Afro-Byzantine''",{{sfn|Ruffini|2012|p=264}} but was also increasingly influenced by Arab culture.{{sfn|Martens-Czarnecka|2015|pp=249–265}} The state organisation was extremely centralised,{{sfn|Werner|2013|p=254}} being based on the [[Byzantine bureaucracy]] of the sixth and seventh centuries.{{sfn|Edwards|2004|p=237}} Arts flourished in the form of pottery paintings{{sfn|Adams|1977|p=496}} and especially wall paintings.{{sfn|Adams|1977|p=482}} The Nubians developed an alphabet for their language, [[Old Nubian|Old Nobiin]], basing it on the [[Coptic alphabet]], while also using [[Medieval Greek|Greek]], [[Coptic language|Coptic]] and [[Arabic]].{{sfn|Welsby|2002|pp=236–239}} Women enjoyed high social status: they had access to education, could own, buy and sell land and often used their wealth to endow churches and church paintings.{{sfn|Werner|2013|pp=344–345}} Even the royal succession was [[matrilineal]], with the son of the king's sister being the rightful heir.{{sfn|Welsby|2002|p=88}}

From the late 11th/12th century, Makuria's capital Dongola was in decline, and Alodia's capital declined in the 12th century as well.{{sfn|Welsby|2002|p=252}} In the 14th and 15th centuries [[Bedouin]] tribes overran most of Sudan,{{sfn|Hasan|1967|p=176}} migrating to the [[Butana]], the [[Gezira (state)|Gezira]], [[Kordofan]] and [[Darfur]].{{sfn|Hasan|1967|p=145}} In 1365 a civil war forced the Makurian court to flee to [[Gebel Adda]] in [[Lower Nubia]], while Dongola was destroyed and left to the Arabs. Afterwards Makuria continued to exist only as a petty kingdom.{{sfn|Werner|2013|pp=143–145}} After the prosperous{{sfn|Lajtar|2011|pp=130–131}} reign of king [[Joel of Dotawo|Joel]] ({{floruit}} 1463–1484) Makuria collapsed.{{sfn|Ruffini|2012|p=256}} Coastal areas from southern Sudan up to the port city of [[Suakin]] was succeeded by the [[Adal Sultanate]] in the fifteenth century.<ref>{{cite thesis |type=Masters |last1=Owens |first1=Travis |date=June 2008 |title=Beleaguered Muslim Fortresses And Ethiopian Imperial Expansion From The 13th To The 16th Century |publisher=Naval Postgraduate School |page=23 |url=https://apps.dtic.mil/dtic/tr/fulltext/u2/a483490.pdf |access-date=22 June 2020 |archive-date=12 November 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201112020204/https://apps.dtic.mil/dtic/tr/fulltext/u2/a483490.pdf |url-status=live }}</ref>{{sfn|Levtzion|Pouwels|2000|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=J1Ipt5A9mLMC&pg=PA229 229]}} To the south, the kingdom of Alodia fell to either the Arabs, commanded by tribal leader [[Abdallah Jamma]], or the [[Funj]], an African people originating from the south.{{sfn|Welsby|2002|p=255}} Datings range from the [[Hijri year|9th century after the Hijra]] ({{circa}} 1396–1494),{{sfn|Vantini|1975|pp=786–787}} the late 15th century,{{sfn|Hasan|1967|p=133}} 1504{{sfn|Vantini|1975|p=784}} to 1509.{{sfn|Vantini|2006|pp=487–489}} An alodian rump state might have survived in the form of the [[kingdom of Fazughli]], lasting until 1685.{{sfn|Spaulding|1974|pp=12–30}}

=== Islamic kingdoms of Sennar and Darfur (c. 1500–1821) ===
{{main|Sultanate of Sennar|Tunjur kingdom|Sultanate of Darfur}}
[[File:Sennar mosque (cropped).jpg|thumb|The great mosque of [[Sennar]], built in the 17th century{{sfn|Holt|Daly|2000|p=25}}]]
In 1504 the Funj are recorded to have founded the [[Kingdom of Sennar]], in which Abdallah Jamma's realm was incorporated.{{sfn|O'Fahey|Spaulding|1974|pp=25–26}} By 1523, when Jewish traveller [[David Reubeni]] visited Sudan, the Funj state already extended as far north as Dongola.{{sfn|O'Fahey|Spaulding|1974|p=26}} Meanwhile, Islam began to be preached on the Nile by [[Sufism|Sufi]] holy men who settled there in the 15th and 16th centuries{{sfn|Loimeier|2013|p=150}} and by David Reubeni's visit king [[Amara Dunqas]], previously a Pagan or nominal Christian, was recorded to be Muslim.{{sfn|O'Fahey|Spaulding|1974|p=31}} However, the Funj would retain un-Islamic customs like the divine kingship or the consumption of alcohol until the 18th century.{{sfn|Loimeier|2013|pp=151–152}} Sudanese [[Folk religion|folk Islam]] preserved many rituals stemming from Christian traditions until the recent past.{{sfn|Werner|2013|pp=177–184}}

Soon the Funj came in conflict with the [[Ottoman Empire|Ottomans]], who had occupied [[Suakin]] {{circa|1526}}{{sfn|Peacock|2012|p=98}} and eventually pushed south along the Nile, reaching the third Nile cataract area in 1583/1584. A subsequent Ottoman attempt to capture Dongola was [[battle of Hannik|repelled]] by the Funj in 1585.{{sfn|Peacock|2012|pp=96–97}} Afterwards, [[Hannik]], located just south of the third cataract, would mark the border between the two states.{{sfn|O'Fahey|Spaulding|1974|p=35}} The aftermath of the Ottoman invasion saw the attempted usurpation of [[Ajib the Great|Ajib]], a minor king of northern Nubia.<!--He is said to have conquered eastern Sudan http://su.diva-portal.org/smash/get/diva2:586255/FULLTEXT01.pdf p. 17 Paul 77,81-83--><!--In around 1580 he conquered eastern Sudan and northwestern Eritrea, --> While the Funj eventually killed him in 1611/1612 his successors, the [[Abdallabi tribe|Abdallab]], were granted to govern everything north of the confluence of Blue and White Niles with considerable autonomy.{{sfn|O'Fahey|Spaulding|1974|pp=36–40}}

<!--Afterwards the Funj state expanded To compensate for this loss and to meet the growing danger posed by the [[Dinka]] and [[Shilluk]] (the latter had founded a [[Shilluk Kingdom|kingdom]] on their own by the early 17th century),
To the south, the Funj gradually expanded southwards the Gezira since the mid 16th century.{{sfn|O'Fahey|Spaulding|1974|p=58}} In 1685 they conquered the kingdom of Fazughli,{{sfn|Spaulding|1974|p=21}} and somewhat later, perhaps {{circa|1720}}, they established themselves in [[Benishangul-Gumuz Region|Bela Shangul]], western [[Ethiopia]].{{sfn|Triulzi|1981|p=74}} Nuba mountains mid 17th century Adams 602 Northern and central Kordofan 1736 p=63 Nuba mountains Adams 602

The 18th century saw the development of the [[Baqqara]] Djuhaina Araber 114
Juhayne east and west of Nile Adams
the premise for precolonial Nuba history
Shaiqiya warrior aristocracy{{sfn|Adams|1977|p=604}} Disdain for Nubian subjects{{sfn|Adams|1977|p=606}}
The Shaiqiya quickly became a dominant military force and raided the Nile Valley from Dongola to the confluence of the Blue and White Niles, but proved incapable of creating a large empire, instead fracturing into four petty, infighting kingdoms.{{sfn|Adams|1977|p=607}}
Shilluk kingdom Blood memory p 34 Mercer late 17th century p=416
HOLT: https://books.google.de/books?id=BkO14rpfY70C&pg=PA22&hl=de&source=gbs_toc_r&cad=3#v=onepage&q&f=false

Decline The state disintegrated as in the late 17th century the warlike [[Shaigiya]], who lived around the fourth Nile cataract, declared independence from the Abdallab and established four independent petty kingdoms.{{sfn|Adams|1977|pp=606–607}} In the late 18th century the Abdallab,{{sfn|Adams|1977|p=608}}, Kordofan and eastern Sudan{{sfn|Spaulding|1985|p=383}} followed. In this period the Shaiqiya were the dominant military force of the Middle Nile, who, while proving to be uncapable of creating a functional empire, regularly raided the territory from Dongola to the confluence of the Blue and White Niles.{{sfn|Adams|1977|p=607}} Spaulding 1998 p=54 In the south the Funj state came under the pressure of the [[Shilluk kingdom|Shilluk]] SOURCE and [[Dinka]].{{sfn|O'Fahey|Spaulding|1974|pp=61–63}}

The decline was hastened by the economy-->
During the 17th century the Funj state reached its widest extent,{{sfn|Adams|1977|p=601}} but in the following century it began to decline.{{sfn|O'Fahey|Spaulding|1974|p=78}} A coup in 1718 brought a dynastic change,{{sfn|O'Fahey|Spaulding|1974|p=88}} while another one in 1761–1762{{sfn|Spaulding|1974|p=24–25}} resulted in the [[Hamaj Regency]], where the [[Hamaj]] (a people from the Ethiopian borderlands) effectively ruled while the Funj sultans were their mere puppets.{{sfn|O'Fahey|Spaulding|1974|pp=94–95}} Shortly afterwards the sultanate began to fragment;{{sfn|O'Fahey|Spaulding|1974|p=98}} by the early 19th century it was essentially restricted to the Gezira.{{sfn|Spaulding|1985|p=382}}
[[File:Southern Sudan - 1800.png|thumb|Southern Sudan in {{circa}} 1800. Modern boundaries are shown.]]
The coup of 1718 kicked off a policy of pursuing a more orthodox Islam, which in turn promoted the [[Arabisation]] of the state.{{sfn|Loimeier|2013|p=152}} To legitimise their rule over their Arab subjects the Funj began to propagate an [[Banu Umayya|Umayyad descend]].{{sfn|Spaulding|1985|pp=210–212}} North of the confluence of the Blue and White Niles, as far downstream as [[Al Dabbah, Sudan|Al Dabbah]], the Nubians adopted the tribal identity of the Arab [[Ja'alin tribe|Jaalin]].{{sfn|Adams|1977|pp=557–558}} Until the 19th century Arabic had succeeded in becoming the dominant language of central riverine Sudan{{sfn|Edwards|2004|p=260}}{{sfn|O'Fahey|Spaulding|1974|pp=28–29}}{{sfn|Hesse|2002|p=50}} and most of Kordofan.{{sfn|Hesse|2002|pp=21–22}}

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Meanwhile, the sultanate of Darfur was at its peak,{{sfn|Holt|2000|p=35}}-->
West of the Nile, in [[Darfur]], the Islamic period saw at first the rise of the [[Tunjur kingdom]], which replaced the old [[Daju kingdom]] in the 15th century{{sfn|McGregor|2011|loc=Table 1}} and extended as far west as [[Wadai Empire|Wadai]].{{sfn|O'Fahey|Spaulding|1974|p=110}} The [[Tunjur people]] were probably Arabised [[Berbers]] and, their ruling elite at least, Muslims.{{sfn|McGregor|2011|p=132}} In the 17th century the Tunjur were driven from power by the [[Fur people|Fur]] [[Sultanate of Darfur|Keira sultanate]].{{sfn|O'Fahey|Spaulding|1974|p=110}} The Keira state, nominally Muslim since the reign of [[Sulayman Solong]] (r. {{circa}} 1660–1680),{{sfn|O'Fahey|Spaulding|1974|p=123}} was initially a small kingdom in northern [[Jebel Marra]],{{sfn|Holt|Daly|2000|p=31}} but expanded west- and northwards in the early 18th century{{sfn|O'Fahey|Spaulding|1974|p=126}} and eastwards under the rule of [[Muhammad Tayrab of Darfur|Muhammad Tayrab]] (r. 1751–1786),{{sfn|O'Fahey|Tubiana|2007|p=9}} peaking in the conquest of Kordofan in 1785.{{sfn|O'Fahey|Tubiana|2007|p=2}} The apogee of this empire, now roughly the size of present-day [[Nigeria]],{{sfn|O'Fahey|Tubiana|2007|p=2}} would last until 1821.{{sfn|O'Fahey|Tubiana|2007|p=9}}

=== Turkiyah and Mahdist Sudan (1821–1899) ===
{{Main|History of Sudan (1821–1885)|Mahdist Sudan|Anglo-Egyptian conquest of Sudan}}
[[File:Egypt under Muhammad Ali Dynasty map en.png|thumb|Map of Egypt and Sudan under [[Muhammad Ali dynasty]]]]
[[File:Muhammad Ahmad al-Mahdi.jpg|thumb|upright=0.8|[[Muhammad Ahmad]], ruler of Sudan (1881–1885)]]
In 1821, the Ottoman ruler of Egypt, [[Muhammad Ali of Egypt]], invaded and conquered northern Sudan. Although technically the [[Vali (governor)|Vali]] of Egypt under the [[Ottoman Empire]], Muhammad Ali styled himself as [[Khedive]] of a virtually independent Egypt. Seeking to add Sudan to his domains, he sent his third son Ismail (not to be confused with [[Isma'il Pasha|Ismaʻil Pasha]] mentioned later) to conquer the country, and subsequently incorporate it into Egypt. With the exception of the Shaiqiya and the Darfur sultanate in Kordofan, he was met without resistance. The Egyptian policy of conquest was expanded and intensified by [[Ibrahim Pasha of Egypt|Ibrahim Pasha]]'s son, Ismaʻil, under whose reign most of the remainder of modern-day Sudan was conquered.

The Egyptian authorities made significant improvements to the Sudanese infrastructure (mainly in the north), especially with regard to irrigation and cotton production. In 1879, the [[International relations of the Great Powers (1814–1919)|Great Powers]] forced the removal of Ismail and established his son [[Tewfik Pasha]] in his place. Tewfik's corruption and mismanagement resulted in the [['Urabi revolt]], which threatened the Khedive's survival. Tewfik appealed for help to the British, who subsequently occupied Egypt in 1882. Sudan was left in the hands of the Khedivial government, and the mismanagement and corruption of its officials.{{sfn|Churchill|1902|p={{page needed|date=November 2020}}}}<ref>{{cite book |author1=Rudolf Carl Freiherr von Slatin |author2=Sir Francis Reginald Wingate |year=1896 |title=Fire and Sword in the Sudan |publisher=E. Arnold |url=https://archive.org/details/riverwarhistoric00chur |access-date=26 June 2013}}</ref>

During the Khedivial period, dissent had spread due to harsh taxes imposed on most activities. Taxation on irrigation wells and farming lands were so high most farmers abandoned their farms and livestock. During the 1870s, European initiatives against the [[History of slavery|slave trade]] had an adverse impact on the economy of northern Sudan, precipitating the rise of [[Muhammad Ahmad|Mahdist]] forces.<ref>{{cite web|author=Domke, D. Michelle |title=ICE Case Studies; Case Number: 3; Case Identifier: Sudan; Case Name: Civil War in the Sudan: Resources or Religion? |publisher = [[Inventory of Conflict and Environment]] |date= November 1997 |url=http://www.american.edu/ted/ice/sudan.htm |access-date=8 January 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20001209170400/http://www.american.edu/ted/ice/sudan.htm |archive-date=9 December 2000 |via=[[American University School of International Service]]}}</ref> [[Muhammad Ahmad|Muhammad Ahmad ibn Abd Allah]], the ''[[Mahdi]]'' (Guided One), offered to the ''ansars'' (his followers) and those who surrendered to him a choice between adopting Islam or being killed. The Mahdiyah (Mahdist regime) imposed traditional Sharia [[Sharia|Islamic law]]s. On 12 August 1881, an incident occurred at [[Battle of Aba|Aba Island]], sparking the outbreak of what became the [[Mahdist War]].

From his announcement of the Mahdiyya in June 1881 until the [[Siege of Khartoum|fall of Khartoum]] in January 1885, Muhammad Ahmad led a [[Mahdist War|successful military campaign]] against the Turco-Egyptian government of the Sudan, known as the [[Turkiyah]]. Muhammad Ahmad died on 22 June 1885, a mere six months after the conquest of Khartoum. After a power struggle amongst his deputies, [[Abdallahi ibn Muhammad]], with the help primarily of the [[Baggara]] of western Sudan, overcame the opposition of the others and emerged as the unchallenged leader of the Mahdiyah. After consolidating his power, Abdallahi ibn Muhammad assumed the title of ''Khalifa'' (successor) of the Mahdi, instituted an administration, and appointed [[Ansar (Sudan)|Ansar]] (who were usually [[Baggara]]) as emirs over each of the several provinces.

[[File:Battle of Omdurman-1.JPG|thumb|upright=1.2|The flight of the [[Abdallahi ibn Muhammad|Khalifa]] after his defeat at the [[Battle of Omdurman]] in 1898]]

Regional relations remained tense throughout much of the Mahdiyah period, largely because of the Khalifa's brutal methods to extend his rule throughout the country. In 1887, a 60,000-man Ansar army invaded [[Ethiopia]], penetrating as far as [[Gondar]]. In March 1889, king [[Yohannes IV]] of Ethiopia marched on [[Metemma]]; however, after Yohannes fell in battle, the Ethiopian forces withdrew. Abd ar-Rahman an-Nujumi, the Khalifa's general, attempted an invasion of Egypt in 1889, but British-led Egyptian troops defeated the Ansar at Tushkah. The failure of the Egyptian invasion broke the spell of the Ansar's invincibility. The [[Belgium|Belgians]] prevented the Mahdi's men from conquering [[Equatoria]], and in 1893, the Italians repelled an Ansar attack at [[Agordat]] (in [[Eritrea]]) and forced the Ansar to withdraw from Ethiopia.

In the 1890s, the British sought to re-establish their control over Sudan, once more officially in the name of the Egyptian Khedive, but in actuality treating the country as a British colony. By the early 1890s, British, French, and Belgian claims had converged at the [[Nile]] headwaters. Britain feared that the other powers would take advantage of Sudan's instability to acquire territory previously annexed to Egypt. Apart from these political considerations, Britain wanted to establish control over the Nile to safeguard a planned irrigation dam at [[Aswan]]. [[Herbert Kitchener]] led military campaigns against the [[Mahdist Sudan]] from 1896 to 1898. Kitchener's campaigns culminated in a decisive victory in the [[Battle of Omdurman]] on 2 September 1898. A year later, the [[Battle of Umm Diwaykarat]] on 25 November 1899 resulted in the death of [[Abdallahi ibn Muhammad]], subsequently bringing to an end the Mahdist War.

=== Anglo-Egyptian Sudan (1899–1956) ===
{{Main|Anglo-Egyptian Sudan}}
[[File:The war in the Soudan.jpg|thumb|upright=1.35|The [[Mahdist War]] was fought between a group of Muslim dervishes called [[Muhammad Ahmad|Mahdists]], who had overrun much of Sudan, and the British forces.]]

In 1899, Britain and Egypt reached an agreement under which Sudan was run by a governor-general appointed by Egypt with British consent.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Humphries |first1=Christian |title=Oxford World Encyclopedia |date=2001 |publisher=Oxford University Press |location=New York, NY |isbn=0195218183 |page=[https://archive.org/details/worldencyclopedi00oxfo/page/644 644] |url=https://archive.org/details/worldencyclopedi00oxfo/page/644 }}</ref> In reality, Sudan was effectively administered as a [[Crown colony]]. The British were keen to reverse the process, started under [[Muhammad Ali of Egypt|Muhammad Ali Pasha]], of uniting the [[Nile Valley]] under Egyptian leadership and sought to frustrate all efforts aimed at further uniting the two countries.{{Citation needed|date=March 2020}}

Under the Delimitation, Sudan's border with Abyssinia was contested by raiding tribesmen trading slaves, breaching boundaries of the law. In 1905 local chieftain Sultan Yambio, reluctant to the end, gave up the struggle with British forces that had occupied the [[Kordofan]] region, finally ending the lawlessness. Ordinances published by Britain enacted a system of taxation. This was following the precedent set by the Khalifa. The main taxes were recognized. These taxes were on land, herds, and date-palms.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Holt |title=A Modern History of the Sudan |publisher=Groves Press Inc |location=New York}}</ref> The continued British administration of Sudan fuelled an increasingly strident nationalist backlash, with Egyptian nationalist leaders determined to force Britain to recognise a single independent union of Egypt and Sudan. With a formal end to Ottoman rule in 1914, Sir [[Reginald Wingate]] was sent that December to occupy Sudan as the new Military Governor. [[Hussein Kamel of Egypt|Hussein Kamel]] was declared [[Sultan of Egypt and Sudan]], as was his brother and successor, [[Fuad I of Egypt|Fuad I]]. They continued upon their insistence of a single Egyptian-Sudanese state even when the [[Sultanate of Egypt]] was retitled as the [[Kingdom of Egypt|Kingdom of Egypt and Sudan]], but it was [[Saad Zaghloul]] who continued to be frustrated in the ambitions until his death in 1927.{{sfn|Daly|p=346}}
[[File:Anglo-Egyptian Sudan camel soldier of the British army.jpg|thumb|upright=1.2|right|A camel soldier of the native forces of the British army, early 20th century]]

From 1924 until independence in 1956, the British had a policy of running Sudan as two essentially separate territories; the north and south. The [[Lee Stack|assassination of a Governor-General of Anglo-Egyptian Sudan in Cairo]] was the causative factor; it brought demands of the newly elected [[Wafd Party|Wafd]] government from colonial forces. A permanent establishment of two battalions in Khartoum was renamed the [[Sudan Defence Force]] acting as under the government, replacing the former garrison of Egyptian army soldiers, saw action afterward during the [[Abyssinia Crisis|Walwal Incident]].{{sfn|Morewood|2005|p=4}} The [[Wafdist]] parliamentary majority had rejected [[Abdel Khalek Sarwat Pasha|Sarwat Pasha]]'s accommodation plan with [[Austen Chamberlain]] in London; yet Cairo still needed the money. The Sudanese Government's revenue had reached a peak in 1928 at £6.6&nbsp;million, thereafter the Wafdist disruptions, and Italian borders incursions from Somaliland, London decided to reduce expenditure during the Great Depression. Cotton and gum exports were dwarfed by the necessity to import almost everything from Britain leading to a balance of payments deficit at Khartoum.{{sfn|Daly|pp=457–459}}

In July 1936 the Liberal Constitutional leader, Muhammed Mahmoud was persuaded to bring Wafd delegates to London to sign the Anglo-Egyptian Treaty, "the beginning of a new stage in Anglo-Egyptian relations", wrote [[Anthony Eden]].{{sfn|Morewood|1940|pp=94–95}} The British Army was allowed to return to Sudan to protect the Canal Zone. They were able to find training facilities, and the RAF was free to fly over Egyptian territory. It did not, however, resolve the problem of Sudan: the Sudanese Intelligentsia agitated for a return to metropolitan rule, conspiring with Germany's agents.<ref>[[Arthur Henderson]], 8 May 1936 quoted in {{harvnb|Daly|p=348}}</ref>
[[File:Egypt sudan under british control.jpg|thumb|upright=1.3|Map of [[Anglo-Egyptian Sudan]], 1912]]
Italian fascist leader [[Benito Mussolini]] made it clear that he could not invade Abyssinia without first conquering Egypt and Sudan; they intended unification of [[Italian Libya]] with [[Italian East Africa]]. The British Imperial General Staff prepared for military defence of the region, which was thin on the ground.<ref>Sir Miles Lampson, 29 September 1938; {{harvnb|Morewood|p=117}}</ref> The British ambassador blocked Italian attempts to secure a Non-Aggression Treaty with Egypt-Sudan. But Mahmoud was a supporter of the [[Grand Mufti of Jerusalem]]; the region was caught between the Empire's efforts to save the Jews, and moderate Arab calls to halt migration.{{sfn|Morewood|pp=164–165}}

The Sudanese Government was directly involved militarily in the [[East African Campaign (World War II)|East African Campaign]]. Formed in 1925, the [[Sudan Defence Force]] played an active part in responding to incursions early in World War Two. Italian troops occupied [[Kassala]] and other border areas from [[Italian East Africa|Italian Somaliland]] during 1940. In 1942, the SDF also played a part in the invasion of the Italian colony by British and Commonwealth forces. The last British [[governor-general]] was [[Robert George Howe]].

The [[Egyptian revolution of 1952]] finally heralded the beginning of the march towards Sudanese independence. Having abolished the monarchy in 1953, Egypt's new leaders, [[Mohammed Naguib]], whose mother was Sudanese, and later [[Gamal Abdel Nasser]], believed the only way to end British domination in Sudan was for Egypt to officially abandon its claims of sovereignty. In addition, Nasser knew it would be difficult for Egypt to govern an impoverished Sudan after its independence. The British on the other hand continued their political and financial support for the Mahdist successor, [[Abd al-Rahman al-Mahdi]], who it was believed would resist Egyptian pressure for Sudanese independence. Abd al-Rahman was capable of this, but his regime was plagued by political ineptitude, which garnered a colossal loss of support in northern and central Sudan. Both Egypt and Britain sensed a great instability fomenting, and thus opted to allow both Sudanese regions, north and south to have a free vote on whether they wished independence or a British withdrawal.

=== Independence (1956–present) ===
{{Main|Republic of the Sudan (1956–1969)|Democratic Republic of the Sudan}}
{{Missing information|section|the history of Sudan between 1956 and 1969 and between 1977 and 1989|date=January 2016}}
[[File:Sudan independence 2.png|upright=1.05|thumb|Sudan's flag raised at independence ceremony on 1 January 1956 by the Prime Minister Ismail al-Azhari and in presence of opposition leader Mohamed Ahmed Almahjoub]]
A polling process was carried out resulting in the composition of a democratic parliament and [[Ismail al-Azhari]] was elected first Prime Minister and led the first modern Sudanese government.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://sudan-embassy.co.uk/en/content/blogcategory/28/37 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081120035130/http://sudan-embassy.co.uk/en/content/blogcategory/28/37 |archive-date=20 November 2008 |title=Brief History of the Sudan |publisher=Sudan Embassy in London |date=20 November 2008 |access-date=31 May 2013}}</ref> On 1 January 1956, in a special ceremony held at the People's Palace, the Egyptian and British flags were lowered and the new Sudanese flag, composed of green, blue and yellow stripes, was raised in their place by the prime minister [[Ismail al-Azhari]].

Dissatisfaction culminated in a [[1969 Sudanese coup d'état|coup d'état]] on 25 May 1969. The coup leader, Col. [[Gaafar Nimeiry]], became prime minister, and the new regime abolished parliament and outlawed all political parties. Disputes between [[Marxist]] and non-Marxist elements within the ruling military coalition resulted in [[1971 Sudanese coup d'état|a briefly successful coup in July 1971]], led by the [[Sudanese Communist Party]]. Several days later, anti-communist military elements restored Nimeiry to power.

In 1972, the [[Addis Ababa Agreement (1972)|Addis Ababa Agreement]] led to a cessation of the north–south civil war and a degree of self-rule. This led to ten years hiatus in the civil war but an end to American investment in the [[Jonglei Canal]] project. This had been considered absolutely essential to irrigate the Upper Nile region and to prevent an environmental catastrophe and wide-scale [[famine]] among the local tribes, most especially the Dinka. In the civil war that followed their homeland was raided, looted, pillaged, and burned. Many of the tribe were murdered in a bloody civil war that raged for over 20 years.

[[File:Hashem al Atta, 1971 Sudanese coup d'état.jpg|thumb|[[1971 Sudanese coup d'état]]]]
Until the early 1970s, Sudan's agricultural output was mostly dedicated to internal consumption. In 1972, the Sudanese government became more pro-Western and made plans to export food and [[cash crop]]s. However, commodity prices declined throughout the 1970s causing economic problems for Sudan. At the same time, debt servicing costs, from the money spent mechanizing agriculture, rose. In 1978, the [[International Monetary Fund|IMF]] negotiated a [[Structural Adjustment Program]] with the government. This further promoted the mechanised export agriculture sector. This caused great hardship for the pastoralists of Sudan. In 1976, the Ansars had mounted a bloody but unsuccessful coup attempt. But in July 1977, President Nimeiry met with Ansar leader [[Sadiq al-Mahdi]], opening the way for a possible reconciliation. Hundreds of political prisoners were released, and in August a general amnesty was announced for all oppositionists.

==== Bashir era (1989–2019) ====
[[File:Omar al-Bashir (2017-11-23) (cropped).jpg|thumb|right|Omar al-Bashir in 2017]]
{{further|Republic of the Sudan (1985–2019)}}
On 30 June 1989, Colonel [[Omar al-Bashir]] led a bloodless [[1989 Sudanese coup d'état|military coup]].<ref name=reuters-factbox>{{cite news |url=https://www.reuters.com/article/topNews/idUKL1435274220080714 |title=Factbox – Sudan's President Omar Hassan al-Bashir |work=Reuters |access-date=8 January 2011 |date=14 July 2008}}</ref> The new military government suspended political parties and introduced an Islamic legal code on the national level.<ref name="Bekele">{{cite news |last=Bekele |first=Yilma |title=Chickens Are Coming Home To Roost! |url=http://www.ethiopianreview.com/content/2929 |work=[[Ethiopian Review]] |location=Addis Ababa |date=12 July 2008 |access-date=13 January 2011}}</ref> Later, al-Bashir carried out purges and executions in the upper ranks of the army, the banning of associations, political parties, and independent newspapers, and the imprisonment of leading political figures and journalists.<ref name="Kepel, Jihad 2002, p.181">{{cite book|last=Kepel|first=Gilles|title=Jihad: The Trail of Political Islam|url=https://archive.org/details/jihad00gill_0|url-access=registration|year=2002|publisher=Harvard University Press|isbn=978-0-674-01090-1|page=[https://archive.org/details/jihad00gill_0/page/181 181]}}</ref> On 16 October 1993, al-Bashir appointed himself "[[President of Sudan|President]]" and disbanded the Revolutionary Command Council. The executive and legislative powers of the council were taken by al-Bashir.<ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2008/jul/14/sudan.warcrimes3 |work=The Guardian |title=Profile: Omar al-Bashir |first=Peter |last=Walker |date=14 July 2008 |access-date=13 January 2011 |location=London}}</ref>

In the [[Sudanese general election, 1996|1996 general election]], he was the only candidate by law to run for election.<ref name="New York Times 1996, p.4">''[[The New York Times]]''. 16 March 1996. p. 4.</ref> Sudan became a [[one-party state]] under the [[National Congress (Sudan)|National Congress Party]] (NCP).<ref>{{cite encyclopedia |url=http://www.historyworld.net/wrldhis/PlainTextHistories.asp?historyid=aa86|title=History of the Sudan |encyclopedia=HistoryWorld |date=n.d. |access-date=13 January 2011}}</ref> During the 1990s, [[Hassan al-Turabi]], then Speaker of the National Assembly, reached out to [[Islamic fundamentalism|Islamic fundamentalist]] groups and invited [[Osama bin Laden]] to the country.<ref name="Shahzad">{{cite news |last=Shahzad |first=Syed Saleem |title=Bin Laden Uses Iraq To Plot New Attacks |work=[[Asia Times]] |location=Hong Kong |access-date=14 January 2011 |date=23 February 2002 |url=http://www.atimes.com/c-asia/DB23Ag02.html|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20021020093406/http://www.atimes.com/c-asia/DB23Ag02.html|url-status=unfit|archive-date=20 October 2002}}</ref> The United States subsequently listed Sudan as a [[State Sponsors of Terrorism|state sponsor of terrorism]].<ref name="foxnews">{{cite news |date=13 March 2007 |url=https://www.foxnews.com/story/families-of-uss-cole-victims-sue-sudan-for-105-million |title=Families of USS ''Cole'' Victims Sue Sudan for $105 Million |agency=Associated Press |publisher=Fox News Channel |access-date=14 January 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181106163604/https://www.foxnews.com/story/0,2933,258413,00.html |archive-date=6 November 2018 |url-status=live }}</ref> Following Al Qaeda's [[1998 United States embassy bombings|bombing of the U.S. embassies in Kenya and Tanzania]], the U.S. launched [[Operation Infinite Reach]] and targeted the [[Al-Shifa pharmaceutical factory]], which the U.S. government falsely believed was producing chemical weapons for the terrorist group. Al-Turabi's influence began to wane, and others in favour of more pragmatic leadership tried to change Sudan's [[international isolation]].<ref>{{cite book|author=Fuller, Graham E. |title=The Future of Political Islam|year=2004|publisher=Palgrave Macmillan|isbn=978-1-4039-6556-1|page=111}}</ref> The country worked to appease its critics by expelling members of the [[Egyptian Islamic Jihad]] and encouraging bin Laden to leave.<ref>{{cite book|last=Wright|first=Lawrence|title=The Looming Tower|url=https://archive.org/details/loomingtoweralqa00wrig|url-access=registration|date=2006|publisher=Knopf Doubleday Publishing Group|isbn=978-0-307-26608-8|pages=[https://archive.org/details/loomingtoweralqa00wrig/page/221 221]–223}}</ref>
[[File:Government Militia in Darfur.PNG|thumb|Government militia in Darfur]]

Before the [[Elections in Sudan|2000 presidential election]], al-Turabi introduced a bill to reduce the President's powers, prompting al-Bashir to [[dissolve parliament|order a dissolution]] and declare a [[state of emergency]]. When al-Turabi urged a boycott of the President's re-election campaign signing agreement with [[Sudan People's Liberation Army]], al-Bashir suspected they were plotting to overthrow the government.<ref name="BBC profile">{{cite news |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/africa/3273569.stm |title=Profile: Sudan's President Bashir |work=BBC News |date=25 November 2003 |access-date=8 January 2011}}</ref> Hassan al-Turabi was jailed later the same year.<ref name=Denies>{{cite news |url=http://www.sudantribune.com/spip.php?article27123 |title=Sudanese Islamist Opposition Leader Denies Link with Darfur Rebels |work=Sudan Tribune |location=Paris |author=Ali, Wasil |date=12 May 2008 |access-date=31 May 2013 |archive-date=12 April 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200412093622/https://www.sudantribune.com/spip.php?article27123 |url-status=dead }}</ref>

In February 2003, the [[Sudan Liberation Movement/Army]] (SLM/A) and [[Justice and Equality Movement]] (JEM) groups in Darfur took up arms, accusing the Sudanese government of oppressing non-Arab Sudanese in favour of [[Sudanese Arabs]], precipitating the [[War in Darfur]]. The conflict has since been [[Darfur genocide|described as a genocide]],<ref>{{cite press release |date=14 July 2008 |url=http://www2.icc-cpi.int/menus/icc/press%20and%20media/press%20releases/press%20releases%20%282008%29/a |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090325100539/http://www2.icc-cpi.int/menus/icc/press%20and%20media/press%20releases/press%20releases%20%282008%29/a |title=ICC Prosecutor Presents Case Against Sudanese President, Hassan Ahmad al Bashir, for Genocide, Crimes Against Humanity and War Crimes in Darfur |publisher=[[International Criminal Court#Office of the Prosecutor|Office of the Prosecutor]], International Criminal Court |archive-date=25 March 2009}}</ref> and the [[International Criminal Court]] (ICC) in The Hague has issued two [[arrest warrant]]s for al-Bashir.<ref name=BBC1>{{cite news |date=4 March 2009 |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/africa/7923102.stm |title=Warrant issued for Sudan's Bashir |work=BBC News |access-date=14 January 2011}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |url=http://pulitzercenter.org/articles/international-criminal-court-charges-+sudans-omar-hassan-al-bashir-genocide |author1=Lynch, Colum |author2=Hamilton, Rebecca |title=International Criminal Court Charges Sudan's Omar Hassan al-Bashir with Genocide |newspaper=The Washington Post |date=13 July 2010 |access-date=14 January 2011 }}{{Dead link|date=December 2021 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}</ref> Arabic-speaking nomadic militias known as the [[Janjaweed]] stand accused of many atrocities.

On 9 January 2005, the government signed the [[Naivasha Agreement|Nairobi Comprehensive Peace Agreement]] with the [[Sudan People's Liberation Movement]] (SPLM) with the objective of ending the [[Second Sudanese Civil War]]. The [[United Nations Mission in Sudan]] (UNMIS) was established under the [[United Nations Security Council Resolution 1590|UN Security Council Resolution 1590]] to support its implementation. The peace agreement was a prerequisite to the 2011 [[South Sudanese independence referendum, 2011|referendum]]: the result was a unanimous vote in favour of secession of [[South Sudan]]; the region of Abyei will hold [[Abyei status referendum|its own referendum]] at a future date.

[[File:Southern Sudan Referendum1.jpg|thumb|Southern Sudanese wait to vote during the [[2011 South Sudanese independence referendum]].]]
The [[Sudan People's Liberation Army]] (SPLA) was the primary member of the [[Eastern Front (Sudan)|Eastern Front]], a coalition of rebel groups operating in eastern Sudan. After the peace agreement, their place was taken in February 2004 after the merger of the larger [[Fulani people|fulani]] and [[Beja Congress]] with the smaller [[Rashaida Free Lions]].<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.unmis.org/english/documents/mmr/MMR2006/MMR-jan04.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060321010542/http://www.unmis.org/english/documents/mmr/MMR2006/MMR-jan04.pdf |title=UNMIS Media Monitoring Report |publisher=United Nations Mission in Sudan |date=4 January 2006 |archive-date=21 March 2006}}</ref> A peace agreement between the Sudanese government and the Eastern Front was signed on 14 October 2006, in Asmara. On 5 May 2006, the [[Darfur Peace Agreement]] was signed, aiming at ending the conflict which had continued for three years up to this point.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://2001-2009.state.gov/r/pa/prs/ps/2006/65972.htm |title=Darfur Peace Agreement |publisher=US Department of State |date=8 May 2006}}</ref> The Chad–Sudan Conflict (2005–2007) had erupted after the [[Battle of Adré]] triggered a declaration of war by Chad.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://english.aljazeera.net/NR/exeres/AB24F0A9-8145-4E1E-96C7-3D8FC9641CC6.htm |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20061010023439/http://english.aljazeera.net/NR/exeres/AB24F0A9-8145-4E1E-96C7-3D8FC9641CC6.htm |archive-date=10 October 2006 |title=Restraint Plea to Sudan and Chad |date=27 December 2005 |agency=Agence France-Presse |publisher=Al Jazeera}}</ref> The leaders of Sudan and Chad signed an agreement in [[Saudi Arabia]] on 3 May 2007 to stop fighting from the [[Darfur conflict]] spilling along their countries' {{convert|1000|km|mi|-2|adj=on}} border.<ref>{{cite news |date=4 May 2007 |url=http://www.chinadaily.com.cn/world/2007-05/04/content_865569.htm |title=Sudan, Chad Agree To Stop Fighting |agency=Associated Press |work=China Daily |location=Beijing}}</ref>

In July 2007 the country was hit by [[2007 Sudan floods|devastating floods]],<ref>{{cite news|agency=Associated Press|url=http://www.iht.com/articles/ap/2007/08/06/africa/AF-GEN-Sudan-Floods.php|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080226201657/http://www.iht.com/articles/ap/2007/08/06/africa/AF-GEN-Sudan-Floods.php |title=UN: Situation in Sudan could deteriorate if flooding continues |date=6 August 2007 |work=[[International Herald Tribune]] |location=Paris |archive-date=26 February 2008}}</ref> with over 400,000 people being directly affected.<ref>{{cite press release |url=http://www.reliefweb.int/rw/rwb.nsf/db900sid/LSGZ-75TGFJ?OpenDocument |title=Sudan Floods: At Least 365,000 Directly Affected, Response Ongoing |date=6 August 2007 |access-date=13 January 2011 |publisher=UN [[Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs]] |agency=[[Relief Web]] |archive-date=20 August 2007 |archive-url=http://webarchive.loc.gov/all/20070820141059/http://www.reliefweb.int/rw/rwb.nsf/db900sid/LSGZ-75TGFJ?OpenDocument |url-status=dead }}</ref> Since 2009, a series of [[Sudanese nomadic conflicts|ongoing conflicts]] between rival nomadic tribes in Sudan and South Sudan have caused a large number of civilian casualties.

==== Partition and rehabilitation ====
The [[Sudanese conflict in South Kordofan and Blue Nile]] in the early 2010s between [[Sudan People's Armed Forces|the Army of Sudan]] and the [[Sudan Revolutionary Front]] started as a dispute over the oil-rich region of [[Abyei]] in the months leading up to [[South Sudan|South Sudanese independence]] in 2011, though it is also related to civil war in Darfur that is nominally resolved. A year later in 2012 during the [[Heglig Crisis]] Sudan would achieve victory against South Sudan, a war over oil-rich regions between South Sudan's [[Unity (state)|Unity]] and Sudan's [[South Kordofan]] states. The events would later be known as the [[2011–2013 Sudanese protests|Sudanese Intifada]], which would end only in 2013 after al-Bashir promised he would not seek re-election in 2015. He later broke his promise and sought re-election in 2015, winning through a boycott from the opposition who believed that the elections would not be free and fair. Voter turnout was at a low 46%.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-africa-32481013 |title=Omar al-Bashir wins Sudan elections by a landslide |work=BBC News |date=27 April 2015 |access-date=24 April 2019}}</ref>

On 13 January 2017, US president [[Barack Obama]] signed an Executive Order that lifted many sanctions placed against Sudan and assets of its government held abroad. On 6 October 2017, the following US president [[Donald Trump]] lifted most of the remaining sanctions against the country and its petroleum, export-import, and property industries.<ref>{{cite news|last1=Wadhams|first1=Nick|last2=Gebre|first2=Samuel|title=Trump Moves to Lift Most Sudan Sanctions|url=https://www.bloomberg.com/news/articles/2017-10-06/u-s-lifting-most-sudan-sanctions-on-progress-in-terrorism-fight|access-date=6 October 2017|work=Bloomberg Politics|date=6 October 2017}}</ref>

==== 2019 Sudanese Revolution and transitional government ====
{{main|Sudanese Revolution|2019–2026 Sudanese transition to democracy}}
{{see also|Sovereignty Council of Sudan}}
[[File:Sudanese protestors celebrate signing of political agreement (cropped).png|thumb|upright=1.3|Sudanese protestors celebrate the 17 August 2019 signing of the [[2019 Sudanese transition to democracy#Draft Constitutional Declaration|Draft Constitutional Declaration]] between military and civilian representatives.]]
On 19 December 2018, [[Sudanese revolution|massive protests]] began after a government decision to triple the price of goods at a time when the country was suffering an acute shortage of foreign currency and inflation of 70 percent.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.cmi.no/news/2116-sudan-december-2018-riots-is-the-regime-crumbling|title=Sudan December 2018 riots: Is the regime crumbling?|website=CMI – Chr. Michelsen Institute|language=en|access-date=30 June 2019}}</ref> In addition, President al-Bashir, who had been in power for more than 30 years, refused to step down, resulting in the convergence of opposition groups to form a united coalition. The government retaliated by arresting more than 800 opposition figures and protesters, leading to the death of approximately 40 people according to the Human Rights Watch,<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.hrw.org/news/2019/04/09/sudan-protesters-killed-injured|title=Sudan: Protesters Killed, Injured|date=9 April 2019|website=Human Rights Watch|language=en|access-date=30 June 2019}}</ref> although the number was much higher than that according to local and civilian reports. The protests continued after the overthrow of his government on 11 April 2019 after a massive sit-in in front of the [[Sudanese Armed Forces]] main headquarters, after which the chiefs of staff decided to intervene and they ordered the arrest of President al-Bashir and declared a three-month state of emergency.<ref name="Sudan military coup topples Bashir">{{Cite news|url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-africa-47891470|title=Sudan military coup topples Bashir|date=11 April 2019|access-date=11 April 2019}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2019/01/sudan-crowds-rally-bashir-police-tear-gas-rival-protest-190109115845545.html |title=Sudan's Omar al-Bashir vows to stay in power as protests rage &#124; News |publisher=Al Jazeera |date=9 January 2019 |access-date=24 April 2019}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|author=Arwa Ibrahim|url=https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2019/01/future-unclear-sudan-protesters-president-loggerheads-190108135021310.html |title=Future unclear as Sudan protesters and president at loggerheads &#124; News |publisher=Al Jazeera |date=8 January 2019 |access-date=24 April 2019}}</ref> Over 100 people died on 3 June after security forces dispersed the sit-in using tear gas and live ammunition in what is known as the [[Khartoum massacre]],<ref>{{Cite news |date=3 June 2019 |title=Sudan's security forces attack long-running sit-in |work=[[BBC News]] |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/av/world-africa-48495713}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title="Chaos and Fire" – An Analysis of Sudan's June 3, 2019 Khartoum Massacre – Sudan |url=https://reliefweb.int/report/sudan/chaos-and-fire-analysis-sudan-s-june-3-2019-khartoum-massacre |website=ReliefWeb |date=5 March 2020 |language=en}}</ref> resulting in Sudan's suspension from the African Union.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/video/2019/jun/06/aftermath-of-sudan-crackdown-emerges-as-death-toll-passes-100-video|title=African Union suspends Sudan over violence against protestors – video|date=7 June 2019|work=The Guardian|access-date=8 June 2019|language=en-GB }}</ref> Sudan's youth had been reported to be driving the protests.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.bbc.com/news/av/world-africa-48802235/sudan-dying-for-the-revolution|title='They'll have to kill all of us!'|work=BBC News|language=en|access-date=30 June 2019}}</ref> The protests came to an end when the [[Forces for Freedom and Change]] (an alliance of groups organizing the protests) and [[Transitional Military Council (2019)|Transitional Military Council]] (the ruling military government) signed the July 2019 Political Agreement and the August 2019 Draft Constitutional Declaration.<ref name="raisethevoices_4Aug2019_const_dec" /><ref name="Const_Dec_En_unofficial" />
The transitional institutions and procedures included the creation of a joint military-civilian [[Sovereignty Council of Sudan]] as head of state, a new [[Chief Justice of Sudan]] as head of the judiciary branch of power, [[Nemat Abdullah Khair]], and a new prime minister. The former Prime Minister, [[Abdalla Hamdok]], a 61-year-old economist who worked previously for the UN [[Economic Commission for Africa]], was sworn in on 21 August 2019.<ref name="SudTrib_EU_recognises_Hamdok">{{cite news | title= We recognize Hamdok as leader of Sudan's transition: EU, Troika envoys | date= 27 October 2021 |newspaper= [[Sudan Tribune]] | url= https://sudantribune.com/article222571 |access-date= 27 October 2021 |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20211027175037/https://sudantribune.com/article222571 |archive-date= 27 October 2021 |url-status=live }}</ref> He initiated talks with the [[IMF]] and [[World Bank]] aimed at stabilising the economy, which was in dire straits because of shortages of food, fuel and hard currency. Hamdok estimated that US$10bn over two years would suffice to halt the panic, and said that over 70% of the 2018 budget had been spent on civil war-related measures. The governments of [[Saudi Arabia]] and the [[United Arab Emirates]] had invested significant sums supporting the military council since Bashir's ouster.<ref name="hamdok">{{cite news |title=Sudan needs up to $10 billion in aid to rebuild economy, new PM says |url=https://www.theglobeandmail.com/world/article-sudan-needs-up-to-10-billion-in-aid-to-rebuild-economy-new-pm-says/ |work=The Globe and Mail |last=Abdelaziz |first=Khalid |date=24 August 2019}}</ref> On 3 September, Hamdok appointed 14 civilian ministers, including the first female foreign minister and the first Coptic Christian, also a woman.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.reuters.com/article/us-sudan-politics-idUSKCN1VO1KY |title=Sudan's PM selects members of first cabinet since Bashir's ouster|date=3 September 2019 |work=Reuters|access-date=4 September 2019}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www.thenational.ae/world/africa/women-take-prominent-place-in-sudanese-politics-as-abdalla-hamdok-names-cabinet-1.906502|title=Women take prominent place in Sudanese politics as Abdalla Hamdok names cabinet |website=The National|date=4 September 2019 }}</ref> As of August 2021, the country was jointly led by Chairman of the Transitional Sovereign Council, [[Abdel Fattah al-Burhan]], and Prime Minister Abdallah Hamdok.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://english.aawsat.com/home/article/3136536/sudan-threatens-use-military-option-regain-control-over-border-ethiopia |title=Sudan Threatens to Use Military Option to Regain Control over Border with Ethiopia |work=Asharq Al-Awsat |date=17 August 2021 |access-date=23 August 2021 }}</ref>

==== 2021 coup and the al-Burhan regime ====
{{main|October–November 2021 Sudanese coup d'état}}
The Sudanese government announced on 21 September 2021 that there was a failed attempt at a [[coup d'état]] from the military that had led to the arrest of 40 military officers.<ref>{{Cite news|date=21 September 2021|title=Coup attempt fails in Sudan – state media|language=en-GB|work=BBC News|url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-africa-58629978|access-date=21 September 2021}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|author=Nima Elbagir and Yasir Abdullah|title=Sudan foils coup attempt and 40 officers arrested, senior officials say|url=https://www.cnn.com/2021/09/21/africa/sudan-failed-coup-attempt-intl-hnk/index.html|access-date=21 September 2021|website=CNN|date=21 September 2021 }}</ref>

One month after the attempted coup, another military coup on 25 October 2021 resulted in the deposition of the civilian government, including former Prime Minister Abdalla Hamdok. The coup was led by general [[Abdel Fattah al-Burhan]] who subsequently declared a state of emergency.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Sudan's civilian leaders arrested – reports|url=https://www.msn.com/en-us/news/world/sudan-s-civilian-leaders-arrested-reports/ar-AAPUVmO|website=www.msn.com}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|date=25 October 2021|title=Sudan Officials Detained, Communication Lines Cut in Apparent Military Coup|language=en|work=Bloomberg.com|url=https://www.bloomberg.com/news/articles/2021-10-25/sudanese-gov-t-officials-detained-group-sees-apparent-coup}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|date=25 October 2021|title=Sudan's civilian leaders arrested amid coup reports|language=en-GB|work=BBC News|url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-africa-59033142}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|last=Magdy|first=Samy|title=Gov't officials detained, phones down in possible Sudan coup|url=https://abcnews.go.com/International/wireStory/sudanese-govt-officials-detained-group-sees-apparent-coup-80763796 |website=ABC News|language=en}}</ref> Burhan took office as the de facto head of state of Sudan and formed a new army-backed government on 11 November 2021.<ref name="al Jazeera 11/2021">{{cite news |title=Sudan army chief names new governing Sovereign Council |url=https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2021/11/11/sudan-army-chief-issues-a-decree-for-new-sovereign-council |access-date=20 March 2023 |work=[[Al Jazeera Media Network|Al Jazeera]] |date=11 November 2021 |archive-date=21 March 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230321000037/https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2021/11/11/sudan-army-chief-issues-a-decree-for-new-sovereign-council |url-status=live }}</ref>

On 21 November 2021, Hamdok was reinstated as prime minister after a political agreement was signed by Burhan to restore the transition to civilian rule (although Burhan retained control). The 14-point deal called for the release of all political prisoners detained during the coup and stipulated that a 2019 constitutional declaration continued to be the basis for a political transition.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Sudan's Hamdok reinstated as PM after political agreement signed|url=https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2021/11/21/sudans-hamdok-reinstated-as-pm-after-political-agreement-signed|access-date=21 November 2021|website=www.aljazeera.com|language=en}}</ref> Hamdok fired the chief of police Khaled Mahdi Ibrahim al-Emam and his second in command Ali Ibrahim.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Staff |date=27 November 2021 |title=Reinstated Sudanese PM Hamdok dismisses police chiefs |url=https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2021/11/27/reinstated-sudanese-pm-hamdok-dismisses-police-chiefs |access-date=22 March 2022 |website=Al Jazeera.com |language=en}}</ref>

On 2 January 2022, Hamdok announced his resignation from the position of Prime Minister following one of the most deadly protests to date.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Sudan PM Abdalla Hamdok resigns after deadly protest|url=https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2022/1/2/sudan-pm-abdalla-hamdok-resigns-after-deadly-protest|access-date=2 January 2022|website=www.aljazeera.com|language=en}}</ref> He was succeeded by [[Osman Hussein (politician)|Osman Hussein]].<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://sudantribune.com/article254282/|title=Sudan's Burhan forms caretaker government|date=20 February 2022|website=sudantribune.com|access-date=19 February 2022|archive-date=24 January 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220124205401/https://sudantribune.com/article254282/|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.msn.com/en-xl/africa/other/acting-council-of-ministers-approves-general-budget-for-year-2022/ar-AASYiyW|title=Acting Council of Ministers Approves General Budget for Year 2022|website=MSN|access-date=19 February 2022|archive-date=19 February 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220219211159/https://www.msn.com/en-xl/africa/other/acting-council-of-ministers-approves-general-budget-for-year-2022/ar-AASYiyW|url-status=live}}</ref> By March 2022 over 1,000 people including 148 children had been detained for opposing the coup, there were 25 allegations of rape<ref name=":2" /> and 87 people had been killed<ref>{{Cite web |last=Associated Press |date=18 March 2022 |title=Sudan group says 187 wounded in latest anti-coup protests |url=https://abcnews.go.com/International/wireStory/sudan-group-187-wounded-latest-anti-coup-protests-83523107 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220318093526/https://abcnews.go.com/International/wireStory/sudan-group-187-wounded-latest-anti-coup-protests-83523107 |archive-date=18 March 2022 |access-date=22 March 2022 |website=ABC News |language=en}}</ref> including 11 children.<ref name=":2">{{Cite web |last=Bachelet |first=Michelle |date=7 March 2022 |title=Oral update on the situation of human rights in the Sudan – Statement by United Nations High Commissioner for Human Rights |url=https://reliefweb.int/report/sudan/oral-update-situation-human-rights-sudan |access-date=22 March 2022 |website=ReliefWeb/ 49th Session of the UN Human Rights Council |language=en}}</ref>

==== 2023–present: Internal conflict ====
{{main|Sudanese civil war (2023–present)}}
[[File:War in Sudan (2023).svg|thumb|Military situation as of 8 March 2024 
{{leftlegend|#FFCCCC|Controlled by [[Sudanese Armed Forces]] and allies}}
{{leftlegend|#008080|Controlled by [[Rapid Support Forces]]}}
{{leftlegend|#E3D975|Controlled by [[Sudan People's Liberation Movement–North#SPLM-N (al-Hilu)|SPLM-N (al-Hilu)]]}}
{{leftlegend|#800033|Controlled by [[SLM (al-Nur)]]}}
([[Template:2023 Sudan war detailed map|Detailed map]])
]]
In April 2023 – as an internationally brokered plan for a transition to civilian rule was discussed – power struggles grew between army commander (and ''[[defacto|de facto]]'' national leader) Abdel Fattah al-Burhan, and his deputy, [[Hemedti]], head of the heavily armed paramilitary [[Rapid Support Forces]] (RSF), formed from the [[Janjaweed]] militia.<ref name="fighting_2023_04_16_france27_com">{{Cite web |date=16 April 2023 |title=Fighting continues in Sudan despite humanitarian pause |url=https://www.france24.com/en/africa/20230416-death-toll-mounts-in-sudan-as-army-paramilitary-fight-for-power |access-date=16 April 2023 |website=[[France 24]]}}</ref><ref name="clashes_2023_04_16_abc_news">{{cite web |url=https://abcnews.go.com/International/clashes-erupt-sudan-army-paramilitary-group-government-transition/story?id=98607846 |title=Clashes erupt in Sudan between army, paramilitary group over government transition |date=16 April 2023 |website=[[ABC News (United States)|ABC News]] |access-date=16 April 2023 |first1=Nadine |last1=El-Bawab }}</ref>

On 15 April 2023, their conflict erupted into a civil war starting with the [[Battle of Khartoum (2023–present)|battles in the streets of Khartoum]] between the army and the RSF – with troops, tanks and planes. By the third day, 400 people had been reported killed and at least 3,500 injured, according to the [[United Nations]].<ref>{{Cite news |last1=Masih |first1=Niha |last2=Pietsch |first2=Bryan |last3=Westfall |first3=Sammy |last4=Berger |first4=Miriam |date=18 April 2023 |title=What's behind the fighting in Sudan, and what is at stake? |url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/world/2023/04/18/sudan-conflict-military-rsf-paramilitary/ |access-date=3 May 2023 |newspaper=The Washington Post}}</ref> Among the dead were three workers from the [[World Food Programme]], triggering a suspension of the organization's work in Sudan, despite ongoing hunger afflicting much of the country.<ref>{{cite web | url=https://apnews.com/article/sudan-fighting-military-rsf-eafa3246b1e3004a1a9f2b9af9561362 | title=Sudan's generals battle for 3rd day; death toll soars to 185 | website=[[Associated Press]] | date=17 April 2023 |first1=Jack |last1=Jeffery |first2=Samy |last2=Magdy }}</ref> Sudanese General [[Yasser al-Atta]] said the [[United Arab Emirates|UAE]] was providing supplies to RSF, which were being used in the war.<ref>{{Cite news |last=Eltahir |first= Nafisa |date=28 November 2023 |title=Sudanese general accuses UAE of supplying paramilitary RSF |language=en |work=Reuters |url=https://www.reuters.com/world/africa/sudanese-general-accuses-uae-supplying-paramilitary-rsf-2023-11-28/ |access-date=19 December 2023}}</ref>

Both the Sudanese Armed Forces and the Rapid Support Forces are [[War crimes during the Sudanese civil war (2023–present)|accused of committing war crimes]].<ref>{{Cite web |date=2 August 2023 |title=War crimes and civilian suffering in Sudan |url=https://www.amnesty.org/en/latest/news/2023/08/sudan-war-crimes-rampant-as-civilians-killed-in-both-deliberate-and-indiscriminate-attacks-new-report/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230925175201/https://www.amnesty.org/en/latest/news/2023/08/sudan-war-crimes-rampant-as-civilians-killed-in-both-deliberate-and-indiscriminate-attacks-new-report/ |archive-date=25 September 2023 |access-date=30 September 2023 |website=Amnesty International |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |title=US declares warring factions in Sudan have committed war crimes |url=https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2023/12/6/us-declares-warring-factions-in-sudan-have-committed-war-crimes |work=Al Jazeera |date=6 December 2023}}</ref> As of 29 December 2023, over 5.8 million were internally displaced and more than 1.5 million others had fled the country as refugees,<ref>{{cite web |url=https://dtm.iom.int/reports/dtm-sudan-monthly-displacement-overview-04 |title=DTM Sudan – Monthly Displacement Overview (04) |date=29 December 2023 |website=IOM UN Migration |access-date=30 December 2023 |archive-date=30 December 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231230194201/https://dtm.iom.int/reports/dtm-sudan-monthly-displacement-overview-04 |url-status=live }}</ref> and many civilians in [[Darfur]] have been reported dead as part of the [[Masalit massacres (2023–present)|Masalit massacres]].<ref>{{Cite news |title=Genocide returns to Darfur |newspaper=The Economist |url=https://www.economist.com/middle-east-and-africa/2023/10/05/genocide-returns-to-darfur |access-date=11 November 2023 |archive-date=10 November 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231110034316/https://www.economist.com/middle-east-and-africa/2023/10/05/genocide-returns-to-darfur |url-status=live }}</ref> Up to 15,000 people were killed in the city of [[Geneina]].<ref>{{cite news |title=Ethnic killings in one Sudan city left up to 15,000 dead: UN report |url=https://www.tbsnews.net/worldbiz/africa/ethnic-killings-one-sudan-city-left-15000-dead-un-report-777970 |work=The Business Standard |date=20 January 2024}}</ref>

As a result of the war the [[World Food Programme]] released a report on 22 February 2024 saying that more than 95% of Sudan's population could not afford a meal a day.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.barrons.com/news/over-95-percent-of-sudanese-cannot-afford-a-meal-a-day-wfp-fef7c4a0|website=Barron's|title=Over 95 Percent Of Sudanese Cannot Afford A Meal A Day: WFP}}</ref> As of April 2024, the United Nations reported that more than 8.6 million people have been forced out of their homes, while 18 million are facing severe hunger, five million of them are at emergency levels.<ref>{{cite news |title=Sudan violence: The horrifying statistics behind the brutal conflict - and still the death toll is unknown |url=https://news.sky.com/story/sudan-violence-the-horrifying-statistics-behind-the-brutal-conflict-and-still-the-death-toll-is-unknown-13112932 |work=Sky News|date=17 April 2024}}</ref> In May 2024, US government officials estimated that at least 150,000 people had died in the war in the past year alone.<ref name=":3">{{Cite news |last1=Bariyo |first1=Nicholas |last2=Steinhauser |first2=Gabriele |title=Genocide Survivors in Darfur Are Caught in Another Brutal Battle |url=https://www.wsj.com/world/africa/genocide-survivors-in-darfur-are-caught-in-another-brutal-battle-d729b143?mod=hp_lead_pos7 |access-date=1 June 2024 |work=The Wall Street Journal}}</ref> The RSF's apparent targeting of Black indigenous communities, especially around the city of El Fasher, have led international officials to warn of the risk of history repeating itself with another genocide in the Darfur region.<ref name=":3" />

On 31 May 2024, a conference was called at the House of Representatives by a US Congresswoman [[Eleanor Holmes Norton]] to address Sudan's humanitarian crisis. A report by the State Department concerning the UAE's involvement in Sudan, including war crimes and arms exports, was the prime focus of the conference's discussion. A panelist speaker, Councilman Mohamed Seifeldein, called for an end to the UAE's involvement in Sudan, stating that the UAE's role in using the RSF in Sudan and also in the [[Yemeni civil war (2014–present)|Yemeni civil war]] "need to be stopped". Seifeldein, along with another panelist [[Hagir S. Elsheikh]], urged the international community to stop all support for the RSF, pointing to the militant group's destructive role in Sudan. Elsheikh also recommended to use social media in raising awareness about the Sudanese war, and to put pressure on the US elected officials to halt arms sales to the UAE.<ref>{{cite news |date=2 June 2024 |title=Congressional Briefing: Report on UAE Intervention in Sudan, War Crimes, and Arms Export |url=https://www.washingtoncentre.org/2024/06/02/report-on-uae-intervention-in-sudan-war-crimes-and-arms-export-conference-by-amina-khan/ |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240603114840/https://www.washingtoncentre.org/2024/06/02/report-on-uae-intervention-in-sudan-war-crimes-and-arms-export-conference-by-amina-khan/ |archive-date=3 June 2024 |access-date=4 June 2024 |work=Washington Center For Human Rights}}</ref> The latest report presented to the UN states that 2025 will see 30.4 million people in Sudan in need for humanitarian aid, due to the military conflict in the country.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Sudan Crisis Response Plan 2024-2025 {{!}} Global Crisis Response Platform |url=https://crisisresponse.iom.int/response/sudan-crisis-response-plan-2024-2025 |access-date=2 January 2025 |website=crisisresponse.iom.int}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=2 January 2025 |title=30.4 million in Sudan requiring humanitarian aid: UN report |url=https://www.bastillepost.com/global/article/4447891-30-4-million-in-sudan-requiring-humanitarian-aid-un-report |access-date=2 January 2025 |website=www.bastillepost.com}}</ref>