Editing Stephen I of Hungary (section)

== Reign (997–1038) ==

=== Grand Prince (997–1000) ===
{{see also|Grand Prince of the Hungarians}}
Grand Prince Géza died in 997.{{sfn|Engel|2001|p=27}}{{sfn|Lukačka|2011|p=33}} Stephen convoked an assembly at Esztergom where his supporters declared him grand prince.{{sfn|Györffy|1994|p=83}} Initially, he only controlled the northwestern regions of the [[Carpathian Basin]]; the rest of the territory was still dominated by tribal chieftains.<ref name='Kristó_web'>{{cite web |last = Kristó |first = Gyula |title = Koppány leverése [Koppány's defeat] |work = Szent István király [King Saint Stephen] |publisher =Magyar Elektronikus Könyvtár |year =2001 |url =http://mek.oszk.hu/05000/05000/html/kristo013.html | access-date =17 August 2013|ref=none}}</ref> Stephen's ascension to the throne was in line with the principle of [[primogeniture]], which prescribed that a father was succeeded by his son.{{sfn|Kristó|2001|p=18}} On the other hand, it contradicted the traditional idea of [[seniority]], according to which Géza should have been succeeded by the most senior member of the [[Árpád dynasty]], which was [[Koppány]] at that time.{{sfn|Kristó|2001|p=18}}{{sfn|Kontler|1999|pp=52–53}} Koppány, who held the title Duke of [[Somogy County (former)|Somogy]], had for many years administered the regions of [[Transdanubia]] south of [[Lake Balaton]].{{sfn|Molnár|2001|p=20}}{{sfn|Lukačka|2011|p=33}}{{sfn|Engel|2001|p=30}}
[[File:Koppany.jpg|alt=Koppány's execution|left|thumb|[[Koppány]]'s execution after his defeat by Stephen, depicted in the ''[[Chronicon Pictum]]'']]
Koppány proposed to Géza's widow, Sarolt, in accordance with the pagan custom of [[levirate marriage]].{{sfn|Györffy|1994|p=83}}{{sfn|Kristó|2001|pp=18–19}}{{sfn|Cartledge|2011|p=11}} He also announced his claim to the throne.{{sfn|Györffy|1994|p=83}} Although it is not impossible that Koppány had already been baptized, in 972,{{sfn|Györffy|1994|p=83}} most of his supporters were pagans, opponents of the Christianity represented by Stephen and his predominantly German [[retinue]].{{sfn|Kristó|2001|p=19}} A charter of 1002 for the [[Pannonhalma Archabbey]] writes of a war between "the Germans and the Hungarians" when referring to the armed conflicts between Stephen and Koppány.{{sfn|Kristó|2001|p=19}}{{sfn|Györffy|1994|pp=83–84}} Even so, Györffy says that ''Oszlar'' ("[[Alans|Alan]]"), ''Besenyő'' ("[[Pechenegs|Pecheneg]]"), ''Kér'' and other place names, referring to ethnic groups or [[Hungarian tribes]] in Transdanubia around the supposed borders of Koppány's duchy, suggest that significant auxiliary units and groups of Hungarian warriors{{mdash}}who had been settled there by Grand Prince Géza{{mdash}}fought in Stephen's army.{{sfn|Györffy|1994|p=84}}

Kristó states that the entire conflict between Stephen and Koppány was only a feud between two members of the [[Árpád dynasty]], with no effect on other Hungarian tribal leaders.<ref name='Kristó_web'/> Koppány and his troops invaded the northern regions of Transdanubia, took many of Stephen's forts and plundered his lands.{{sfn|Kristó|2001|p=19}} Stephen, who, according to the ''Illuminated Chronicle'', "was for the first time girded with his sword",<ref>''The Hungarian Illuminated Chronicle'' (ch. 39.64), p. 105.</ref> placed the brothers [[Hont-Pázmány#Notable members of the clan|Hont and Pázmány]] at the head of his own guard and nominated [[Vecelin]] to lead the royal army.{{sfn|Kristó|2001|p=19}}{{sfn|Györffy|1994|pp=63, 83}}{{sfn|Engel|2001|p=39}} The last was a German knight who had come to Hungary in the reign of Géza.{{sfn|Györffy|1994|p=63}} Hont and Pázmány were, according to [[Simon of Kéza]]'s ''[[Gesta Hunnorum et Hungarorum]]'' and the ''Illuminated Chronicle'', "knights of [[Duchy of Swabia|Swabian]] origin"<ref>''Simon of Kéza: The Deeds of the Hungarians'' (ch. 78.), p. 163.</ref> who settled in Hungary either under Géza or in the first years of Stephen's reign.<ref name='Kristó_web'/> On the other hand, Lukačka and other Slovak historians say that Hont and Pázmány were "Slovak" noblemen who had joined Stephen during his rule in Nyitra.{{sfn|Lukačka|2011|pp=32–33}}

Koppány was besieging [[Veszprém]] when he was informed of the arrival of Stephen's army.{{sfn|Györffy|1994|p=84}} In the ensuing battle, Stephen won a decisive victory over his enemies.{{sfn|Cartledge|2011|p=11}} Koppány was killed on the battlefield.{{sfn|Molnár|2001|p=20}} His body was quartered and its parts were displayed at the gates of the forts of Esztergom, [[Győr]], [[Gyulafehérvár]] (Alba Iulia, [[Romania]]) and Veszprém in order to threaten all of those who were conspiring against the young monarch.{{sfn|Cartledge|2011|p=11}}{{sfn|Kontler|1999|p=53}}{{sfn|Györffy|1994|p=85}}

Stephen occupied Koppány's duchy and granted large estates to his own partisans.{{sfn|Lukačka|2011|p=33}}{{sfn|Györffy|1994|pp=85–86}} He also prescribed that Koppány's former subjects were to pay [[tithe]]s to the Pannonhalma Archabbey, according to the deed of the foundation of this monastery which has been preserved in a manuscript containing [[Interpolation (manuscripts)|interpolations]].{{sfn|Kristó|2001|p=19}}{{sfn|Berend|Laszlovszky|Szakács|2007|p=351}} The same document declares that "there were no other bishoprics and monasteries in Hungary" at that time.{{sfn|Thoroczkay|2001|p=52}} On the other hand, the nearly contemporary Bishop [[Thietmar of Merseburg]] stated that Stephen "established bishoprics in his kingdom"<ref name="Chronicon_193">''The'' Chronicon ''of Thietmar of Merseburg'' (ch. 29.), p. 193.</ref> before being crowned king.{{sfn|Thoroczkay|2001|p=52}} If the latter report is valid, the [[Roman Catholic Archdiocese of Veszprém|dioceses of Veszprém]] and [[Roman Catholic Diocese of Győr|Győr]] are the most probable candidates, according to historian [[Gábor Thoroczkay]].{{sfn|Thoroczkay|2001|pp=52–54}}

=== Coronation (1000–1001) ===
{{see also|King of Hungary|Coronation of the Hungarian monarch}}
[[File:Statue of Stephen I of Hungary in Buda Castle 2010.JPG|thumb|right|alt=St Stephen's modern sculpture in Budapest|King Saint Stephen's modern sculpture in [[Budapest]]]]
By ordering the display of one part of Koppány's quartered corpse in Gyulafehérvár, the seat of his maternal uncle, [[Gyula III|Gyula the Younger]], Stephen asserted his claim to rule all lands dominated by Hungarian lords.{{sfn|Kristó|2001|p=20}} He also decided to strengthen his international status by adopting the title of king.{{sfn|Kristó|2001|p=21}} However, the exact circumstances of his coronation and its political consequences are subject to scholarly debate.{{sfn|Engel|2001|p=28}}

Thietmar of Merseburg writes that Stephen received the crown "with the favour and urging"<ref name='Chronicon_193'/> of Emperor [[Otto III, Holy Roman Emperor|Otto III]] (r. 996–1002),{{sfn|Berend|Laszlovszky|Szakács|2007|p=343}} implying that Stephen accepted the Emperor's suzerainty before his coronation.{{sfn|Engel|2001|p=28}} On the other hand, all of Stephen's legends emphasize that he received his crown from [[Pope Sylvester II]] (r. 999–1003).{{sfn|Engel|2001|p=28}} Kristó{{sfn|Kristó|2001|p=22}} and other historians{{sfn|Györffy|1994|p=96}} point out that Pope Sylvester and Emperor Otto were close allies, which implies that both reports are valid: Stephen "received the crown and consecration"<ref name='Chronicon_193'/> from the Pope, but not without the Emperor's consent. Around 75 years after the coronation, [[Pope Gregory VII]] (r. 1075–1085), who claimed suzerainty over Hungary, declared that Stephen had "offered and devotedly surrendered" Hungary "to [[Saint Peter]]" (that is, to the [[Holy See]]).{{sfn|Berend|Laszlovszky|Szakács|2007|p=343}}{{sfn|Györffy|1994|p=96}}<ref>''Pope Gregory VII's letter to King Solomon of Hungary, claiming suzerainty over that kingdom'', p. 48.</ref> In a contrasting report, Stephen's ''Greater Legend'' states that the King offered Hungary to the [[Virgin Mary]].{{sfn|Györffy|1994|p=96}} Modern historians{{mdash}}including Pál Engel, and Miklós Molnár{{mdash}}write that Stephen always asserted his sovereignty and never accepted papal or imperial suzerainty.{{sfn|Molnár|2001|p=20}}{{sfn|Engel|2001|p=28}} For instance, none of his charters were dated according to the years of the reign of the contemporary emperors, which would have been the case if he had been their vassal.{{sfn|Makk|2001|p=45}} Furthermore, Stephen declared in the preamble to his ''First Book of Laws'' that he governed his realm "by the will of God".{{sfn|Makk|2001|p=45}}<ref>''Laws of King Stephen I'' (Stephen I:Preface), p. 1.</ref>

The exact date of Stephen's coronation is unknown.{{sfn|Kristó|2001|p=22}} According to later Hungarian tradition, he was crowned on the first day of the second millennium, which may refer either to 25 December 1000 or to 1 January 1001.{{sfn|Engel|2001|p=27}}{{sfn|Kristó|2001|pp=22–23}} Details of Stephen's coronation preserved in his ''Greater Legend'' suggest that the ceremony, which took place in Esztergom or [[Székesfehérvár]]<ref>
{{Cite web |url=http://www.rubicon.hu/ma_files/2013_06_004-17.pdf |title=Királykoronázások és temetések Székesfehérváron (2013/6) |access-date=7 November 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161112144415/http://www.rubicon.hu/ma_files/2013_06_004-17.pdf |archive-date=12 November 2016 |url-status=dead  }} 
</ref> followed the rite of the coronation of the German kings.{{sfn|Györffy|1994|p=98}} Accordingly, Stephen was [[Anointment|anointed]] with [[chrism|consecrated oil]] during the ceremony.{{sfn|Györffy|1994|p=98}} Stephen's portrait, preserved on his royal cloak from 1031, shows that his crown, like the Holy Roman Emperor's diadem, was a [[hoop crown]] decorated with [[gemstones]].{{sfn|Györffy|1994|p=97}}

Besides his crown, Stephen regarded a spear with a flag as an important symbol of his sovereignty.{{sfn|Györffy|1994|p=97}} For instance, [[Coinage in the Kingdom of Hungary|his first coins]] bear the inscription LANCEA REGIS ("the king's spear") and depict an arm holding a spear with flag.{{sfn|Györffy|1994|p=97}} According to the contemporaneous [[Adémar de Chabannes]], a spear had been given to Stephen's father by Emperor Otto III as a token of Géza's right to "enjoy the most freedom in the possession of his country".{{sfn|Makk|2001|p=41}} Stephen is styled in various ways{{mdash}}''Ungarorum rex'' ("king of the Hungarians"), ''Pannoniorum rex'' ("king of the Pannonians") or ''Hungarie rex'' ("king of Hungary"){{mdash}}in his charters.{{sfn|Berend|Laszlovszky|Szakács|2007|p=343}}

=== Consolidation (1001–{{circa}} 1009) ===
Although Stephen's power did not rely on his coronation,{{sfn|Berend|Laszlovszky|Szakács|2007|p=343}} the ceremony granted him the internationally accepted legitimacy of a Christian monarch who ruled his realm "[[by the Grace of God]]".{{sfn|Kristó|2001|p=23}} All his legends testify that he established an [[Archdiocese of Esztergom|archbishopric with its see in Esztergom]] shortly after his coronation.{{sfn|Thoroczkay|2001|p=54}} This act ensured that the Church in Hungary became independent of the prelates of the Holy Roman Empire.{{sfn|Thoroczkay|2001|p=53}}{{sfn|Kontler|1999|p=54}} The earliest reference to an archbishop of Esztergom, named [[Domonkos I, Archbishop of Esztergom|Domokos]], has been preserved in the deed of foundation of the Pannonhalma Archabbey from 1002.{{sfn|Thoroczkay|2001|p=54}} According to historian [[Gábor Thoroczkay]], Stephen also established the [[Roman Catholic Archdiocese of Kalocsa-Kecskemét|Diocese of Kalocsa]] in 1001.{{sfn|Thoroczkay|2001|p=58}} Stephen invited foreign priests to Hungary to evangelize his kingdom.{{sfn|Kontler|1999|p= 54}} Associates of the late Adalbert of Prague, including [[Radla]] and [[Astrik]], arrived in Hungary in the first years of his reign.{{sfn|Berend|Laszlovszky|Szakács|2007|p=336}}{{sfn|Thoroczkay|2001|pp=55–57}} The presence of an unnamed "Archbishop of the Hungarians" at the [[synod]] of 1007 of [[Frankfurt]] and the consecration of an altar in [[Bamberg]] in 1012 by Archbishop Astrik show that Stephen's [[prelate]]s maintained a good relationship with the clergy of the Holy Roman Empire.{{sfn|Bakay|1999|p=547}}

The transformation of Hungary into a Christian state was one of Stephen's principal concerns throughout his reign.{{sfn|Cartledge|2011|p=14}} Although the Hungarians' conversion had already begun in his father's reign, it was only Stephen who systematically forced his subjects to give up their pagan rituals.{{sfn|Berend|Laszlovszky|Szakács|2007|pp=331, 333}} His legislative activity was closely connected with Christianity.{{sfn|Berend|Laszlovszky|Szakács|2007|p=333}} For example, his ''First Book of Laws'' from the first years of his reign includes several provisions prescribing the observance of [[feast day]]s and the [[Sacrament of Penance (Catholic Church)|confession]] before death.{{sfn|Berend|Laszlovszky|Szakács|2007|p=334}}{{sfn|Györffy|1994|p= 135}} His other laws protected property rights{{sfn|Cartledge|2011|p=15}} and the interests of widows and orphans, or regulated the status of serfs.{{sfn|Györffy|1994|p= 135}}

{{Blockquote|If someone has such a hardened heart{{mdash}}God forbid it to any Christian{{mdash}}that he does not want to confess his faults according to the counsel of a priest, he shall lie without any divine service and alms like an infidel. If his relatives and neighbors fail to summon the priest, and therefore he should die unconfessed, prayers and alms should be offered, but his relatives shall wash away their negligence by [[Fasting and abstinence in the Catholic Church|fasting]] in accordance with the judgement of the priests. Those who die a sudden death shall be buried with all ecclesiastical honor; for divine judgment is hidden from us and unknown.|''Laws of King Stephen I''<ref>''Laws of King Stephen I'' (Stephen I:12), p. 4.</ref>}}

[[File:Stephen I intercepts Gyula (Chronicon Pictum 040).jpg|thumb|right|alt=Gyula the Younger is captured|Stephen's forces seize his uncle, [[Gyula III|Gyula the Younger]]]]
Many Hungarian lords refused to accept Stephen's suzerainty even after his coronation.{{sfn|Kontler|1999|p=53}} The new King first turned against his own uncle, Gyula the Younger, whose realm "was most wide and rich",<ref>''The Hungarian Illuminated Chronicle'' (ch. 40.65), p. 105.</ref> according to the ''Illuminated Chronicle''.{{sfn|Kristó|2001|p=24}} Stephen invaded Transylvania and seized Gyula and his family around 1002{{sfn|Sălăgean|2005|pp=150–151}}{{sfn|Curta|2001|p=145}} or in 1003.{{sfn|Engel|2001|p=27}}{{sfn|Kristó|2001|p=24}} The contemporary ''Annals of Hildesheim''{{sfn|Curta|2001|p=145}} adds that Stephen converted his uncle's "country to the Christian faith by force" after its conquest.{{sfn|Kristó|2001|p=24}} Accordingly, historians date the establishment of the [[Roman Catholic Archdiocese of Alba Iulia|Diocese of Transylvania]] to this period.{{sfn|Curta|2001|p=145}}{{sfn|Thoroczkay|2001|p=58}} If the identification, proposed by Kristó, Györffy and other Hungarian historians, of Gyula with one Prokui{{mdash}}who was Stephen's uncle according to Thietmar of Merseburg{{mdash}}is valid,{{sfn|Curta|2001|p=146}} Gyula later escaped from captivity and fled to [[Bolesław I the Brave]], [[Duke of Poland]] (r. 992–1025).{{sfn|Kristó|2001|p=24}}

{{Blockquote|[Duke Boleslav the Brave's] territory included a certain burg, located near the border with the Hungarians. Its guardian was lord Prokui, an uncle of the Hungarian king. Both in the past and more recently, Prokui had been driven from his lands by the king and his wife had been taken captive. When he was unable to free her, his nephew arranged for her unconditional release, even though he was Prokui's enemy. I have never heard of anyone who showed such restraint towards a defeated foe. Because of this, God repeatedly granted him victory, not only in the burg mentioned above, but in others as well.|[[Thietmar of Merseburg]], ''Chronicon''<ref>''The'' Chronicon ''of Thietmar of Merseburg'' (ch. 8.4), pp.&nbsp;363–364.</ref>}}

About a hundred years later, the chronicler [[Gallus Anonymus]] also made mention of armed conflicts between Stephen and Boleslav, stating that the latter "defeated the Hungarians in battle and made himself master of all their lands as far as the [[Danube]]".{{sfn|Steinhübel|2011|p= 19}}<ref>''The Deeds of the Princes of the Poles'' (ch. 6.), pp.&nbsp;31–33.</ref>{{sfn|Györffy|1994|p= 142}} Györffy says that the chronicler's report refers to the occupation of the valley of the river [[Morava (river)|Morava]]{{mdash}}a tributary of the Danube{{mdash}}by the [[Polish people|Poles]] in the 1010s.{{sfn|Györffy|1994|p= 142}} On the other hand, the ''[[Polish-Hungarian Chronicle]]'' states that the Polish duke occupied large territories north of the Danube and east of the Morava as far as Esztergom in the early 11th century.{{sfn|Györffy|1994|p= 142}}{{sfn|Steinhübel|2011|pp= 19–21}} According to Steinhübel, the latter source proves that a significant part of the lands that now form Slovakia were under Polish rule between 1002 and 1030.{{sfn|Steinhübel|2011|pp= 19–21}} In contrast with the Slovak historian, Györffy writes that this late chronicle "in which one absurdity follows another" contradicts all facts known from 11th-century sources.{{sfn|Györffy|1994|pp= 107–108, 142}}
[[File:Stephen I defeats Kean (Chronicon Pictum 041).jpg|thumb|left|alt=Kean's defeat by Stephen|Stephen defeats Kean "Duke of the Bulgarians and Slavs"]]
The ''Illuminated Chronicle'' narrates that Stephen "led his army against Kean, Duke of the Bulgarians and Slavs whose lands are by their natural position most strongly fortified"<ref>''The Hungarian Illuminated Chronicle'' (ch. 41.66), p. 105.</ref> following the occupation of Gyula's country.{{sfn|Lenkey|2003|p= 37}} According to a number of historians, including Zoltán Lenkey{{sfn|Lenkey|2003|p= 37}} and Gábor Thoroczkay,{{sfn|Thoroczkay|2001|p=58}} Kean was the head of a small state located in the southern parts of Transylvania and Stephen occupied his country around 1003. Other historians, including Györffy, say that the chronicle's report preserved the memory of Stephen's campaign against [[First Bulgarian Empire|Bulgaria]] in the late 1010s.{{sfn|Györffy|1994|p= 91}}

Likewise, the identification of the "[[Black Hungarians]]"<ref>''Life of the Five Brethren by Bruno of Querfurt'' (ch. 10.), p. 245.</ref>{{mdash}}who were mentioned by Bruno of Querfurt and Adémar de Chabannes among the opponents of Stephen's proselytizing policy{{mdash}}is uncertain.{{sfn|Lenkey|2003|pp= 38–39}} Györffy locates their lands to the east of the river [[Tisza]];{{sfn|Györffy|1994|p= 187}} while Thoroczkay says they live in the southern parts of Transdanubia.{{sfn|Thoroczkay|2001|p=58}} Bruno of Querfurt's report of the Black Hungarians' conversion by force suggests that Stephen conquered their lands at the latest in 1009 when "the first mission of Saint Peter"{{sfn|Thoroczkay|2001|p=60}}{{mdash}}a [[papal legate]], Cardinal Azo{{mdash}}arrived in Hungary.{{sfn|Lenkey|2003|p= 39}} The latter attended the meeting in [[Győr]] where the royal charter determining the borders of the newly established [[Roman Catholic Diocese of Pécs|Bishopric of Pécs]] was issued on 23 August 1009.{{sfn|Thoroczkay|2001|p=60}}

The [[Roman Catholic Archdiocese of Eger|Diocese of Eger]] was also set up around 1009.{{sfn|Thoroczkay|2001|p=60}}{{sfn|Györffy|1994|p=108}} According to Thoroczkay, "it is very probable" that the bishopric's establishment was connected with the conversion of the [[Kabars]]{{mdash}}an ethnic group of [[Khazars|Khazar]] origin{{mdash}}{{sfn|Engel|2001|p=22}} and their chieftain.{{sfn|Thoroczkay|2001|p=61}} The head of the Kabars{{mdash}}who was either [[Samuel Aba]] or his father{{mdash}}{{sfn|Engel|2001|p=29}} married Stephen's unnamed younger sister on this occasion.{{sfn|Thoroczkay|2001|p=61}}{{sfn|Kristó|Makk|1996|p=63}} The [[Aba (family)|Aba clan]] was the most powerful among the native families who joined Stephen and supported him in his efforts to establish a Christian monarchy.{{sfn|Engel|2001|pp=40, 85}} The reports by [[Anonymus (notary of Béla III)|Anonymus]], Simon of Kéza and other Hungarian chroniclers of the Bár-Kalán, [[Csák (genus)|Csák]] and other 13th-century noble families descending from Hungarian chieftains suggest that other native families were also involved in the process.{{sfn|Engel|2001|pp=40, 85}}

Stephen set up a territory-based administrative system,{{sfn|Kristó|2001|p=24}} establishing [[Counties of the Kingdom of Hungary|counties]].{{sfn|Engel|2001|pp= 40–41}} Each county, headed by a royal official known as a count or ''[[ispán]]'', was an administrative unit organized around a royal fortress.{{sfn|Engel|2001|pp= 40–41}} Most fortresses were earthworks in this period,{{sfn|Györffy|1994|p= 119}} but the castles at Esztergom, [[Székesfehérvár]] and Veszprém were built of stone.{{sfn|Engel|2001|p= 41}} Forts serving as county seats also became the nuclei of Church organization.{{sfn|Györffy|1994|p= 119}} The settlements developing around them, where markets were held on each Sunday, were important local economic centers.{{sfn|Györffy|1994|p= 119}}

=== Wars with Poland and Bulgaria ({{circa}} 1009–1018) ===

Stephen's brother-in-law, [[Henry II, Holy Roman Emperor|Henry II]], became [[King of Germany]] in 1002 and Holy Roman Emperor in 1013.{{sfn|Makk|2001|p=45}} Their friendly relationship ensured that the western borders of Hungary experienced a period of peace in the first decades of the 11th&nbsp;century.{{sfn|Makk|2001|p=45}}{{sfn|Györffy|1994|p= 140}} Even when Henry II's discontented brother, [[Bruno of Augsburg|Bruno]], sought refuge in Hungary in 1004, Stephen preserved the peace with Germany and negotiated a settlement between his two brothers-in-law.{{sfn|Makk|2001|p=45}}{{sfn|Györffy|1994|p= 133}} Around 1009, he gave his younger sister in marriage to [[Otto Orseolo]], [[Doge of Venice]] (r. 1008–1026), a close ally of the [[Byzantine Emperor]], [[Basil II]] (r. 976–1025), which suggests that Hungary's relationship with the [[Byzantine Empire]] was also peaceful.{{sfn|Györffy|1994|p= 144}} On the other hand, the alliance between Hungary and the Holy Roman Empire brought her into a war with Poland lasting from around 1014{{sfn|Kristó|2003|p=71}} until 1018.{{sfn|Lenkey|2003|p=88}} The Poles occupied the Hungarian posts along the river Morava.{{sfn|Makk|1993|pp=48–49}} Györffy and Kristó write that a [[Pechenegs|Pecheneg]] incursion into Transylvania, the memory of which has been preserved in Stephen's legends, also took place in this period, because the Pechenegs were close allies of the Polish duke's brother-in-law, Grand Prince [[Sviatopolk I of Kiev]] (r. 1015–1019).{{sfn|Kristó|2003|p=71}}{{sfn|Györffy|1994|p= 143}}

Poland and the Holy Roman Empire concluded the [[Peace of Bautzen]] in January 1018.{{sfn|Györffy|1994|p= 143}} Later in the same year, 500 Hungarian horsemen accompanied [[Bolesław I the Brave|Boleslav of Poland]] to [[Kyiv]], suggesting that Hungary had been included in the peace treaty.{{sfn|Györffy|1994|p= 143}} The historian Ferenc Makk says that the Peace of Bautzen obliged Boleslav to hand over all the territories he had occupied in the Morava valley to Stephen.{{sfn|Makk|1993|pp=48–49}} According to Leodvin, the first known [[Roman Catholic Diocese of Oradea Mare|Bishop of Bihar]] (r. {{circa}} 1050 – {{circa}} 1060), Stephen allied with the Byzantines and led a military expedition to assist them against "[[barbarian]]s" in the [[Balkan Peninsula]].{{sfn|Györffy|1994|pp= 145–146}} The Byzantine and Hungarian troops jointly took "Cesaries" which Györffy identifies as the present-day town of [[Ohrid]].{{sfn|Györffy|1994|p=146}} Leodvin's report suggests that Stephen joined the Byzantines in the war ending with [[Byzantine conquest of Bulgaria|their conquest of Bulgaria]] in 1018.{{sfn|Kristó|2003|p=72}} However, the exact date of his expedition is uncertain.{{sfn|Györffy|1994|p=146}} Györffy argues that it was only in the last year of the war that Stephen led his troops against the Bulgarians.{{sfn|Györffy|1994|p= 146}}

=== Domestic policies (1018–1024) ===

[[File:Bishop Gerard of Csanád and his disciple, Prince Emeric, Püspökkút Memorial Column detail, Székesfehérvár (8640275845).jpg|thumb|alt=Saints Gerard and Emeric| Modern statute of Bishop [[Gerard of Csanád]] and his disciple, Prince [[Saint Emeric of Hungary|Emeric]] (both were canonized along with King Stephen in 1083). Püspökkút-statue in [[Székesfehérvár]], installment]]
[[File:Pécsvárad12.JPG|thumb|right|alt=Pécsvárad Abbey|Ruins of the [[Pécsvárad Abbey]], established by Stephen]]

Bishop Leodvin wrote that Stephen collected [[relic]]s of a number of saints in "Cesaries" during his campaign in the Balkans, including [[Saint George]] and [[Saint Nicholas]].{{sfn|Kristó|2003|p=72}} He donated them to his new triple-naved basilica dedicated to the Holy Virgin{{sfn|Butler|Cumming|Burns|1998|p=159}} in Székesfehérvár,{{sfn|Györffy|1994|pp= 146, 151}} where he also set up a [[cathedral chapter]] and his new capital.{{sfn|Engel|2001|p= 43}} His decision was influenced by the opening, in 1018 or 1019, of a new [[pilgrimage]] route that bypassed his old capital, Esztergom. The new route connected Western Europe and the [[Holy Land]] through Hungary.{{sfn|Cartledge|2011|p=16}}{{sfn|Györffy|1994|pp= 147, 151}} Stephen often met the pilgrims, contributing to the spread of his fame throughout Europe.{{sfn|Györffy|1994|p=148}} Abbot [[Odilo of Cluny]], for example, wrote in a letter to Stephen that "those who have returned from the [[Church of the Holy Sepulchre|shrine of our Lord]]" testify to the king's passion "towards the honour of our divine religion".{{sfn|Györffy|1994|p=147}} Stephen also established four hostels for pilgrims in Constantinople, [[Jerusalem]], [[Ravenna]] and [[Rome]].{{sfn|Györffy|1994|p=150}}

{{Blockquote|[Almost] all those from Italy and Gaul who wished to go to the [[Church of the Holy Sepulchre|Sepulchre of the Lord]] at Jerusalem abandoned the usual route, which was by sea, making their way through the country of King Stephen. He made the road safe for everyone, welcomed as brothers all he saw and gave them enormous gifts. This action led many people, nobles and commoners, to go to Jerusalem.|[[Rodulfus Glaber]], ''The Five Books of the Histories''<ref>Rodulfus Glaber, ''The Five Books of the Histories'' (ch. 3.1.2.), p. 97.</ref>}}

In addition to pilgrims, merchants often used the safe route across Hungary when travelling between Constantinople and Western Europe.{{sfn|Cartledge|2011|p=16}} Stephen's legends refer to 60 wealthy Pechenegs who travelled to Hungary, but were attacked by Hungarian border guards.{{sfn|Kristó|2001|p=28}} The king sentenced his soldiers to death in order to demonstrate his determination to preserve internal peace.{{sfn|Kristó|2001|p=28}} Regular minting of coinage began in Hungary in the 1020s.{{sfn|Györffy|1994|p=160}} His silver dinars bearing the inscriptions STEPHANUS REX ("King Stephen") and REGIA CIVITAS ("royal city") were popular in contemporary Europe, as demonstrated by counterfeited copies unearthed in [[Sweden]].{{sfn|Cartledge|2011|p=16}}{{sfn|Györffy|1994|p=160}}

Stephen convinced some pilgrims and merchants to settle in Hungary.{{sfn|Cartledge|2011|p=16}}{{sfn|Györffy|1994|p=147}} [[Gerard of Csanád|Gerard]], a [[Benedictine]] monk who arrived in Hungary from the [[Republic of Venice]] between 1020 and 1026, initially planned to continue his journey to the Holy Land, but decided to stay in the country after his meeting with the king.{{sfn|Györffy|1994|p=148}} Stephen also established a number of Benedictine monasteries{{mdash}}including the abbeys at [[Pécsvárad Abbey|Pécsvárad]], [[Zalavár]] and [[Bakonybél Abbey|Bakonybél]]{{sfn|Berend|Laszlovszky|Szakács|2007|p=352}}{{mdash}}in this period.{{sfn|Györffy|1994|p=110}}

The ''[[Long Life of Saint Gerard]]'' mentions Stephen's conflict with [[Ajtony]], a chieftain in the region of the river [[Mureș River|Maros]]. Many historians date their clash to the end of the 1020s, although Györffy and other scholars put it at least a decade earlier.{{sfn|Curta|2001|p=40}}{{sfn|Györffy|1994|p=142}} The conflict arose when Ajtony, who "had taken his power from the Greeks", according to Saint Gerard's legend, levied tax on the salt transported to Stephen on the river.{{sfn|Györffy|1994|p=101}} The king sent a large army led by [[Csanád]] against Ajtony, who was killed in battle.{{sfn|Curta|2001|p=142}} His lands were transformed into a Hungarian [[Csanád County|county]] and the king set up a [[Roman Catholic Diocese of Szeged-Csanád|new bishopric at Csanád]] (Cenad, Romania), Ajtony's former capital, which was renamed after the commander of the royal army.{{sfn|Curta|2001|p=142}} According to the ''[[Annales Posonienses]]'', the Venetian Gerard was consecrated as the first bishop of the new diocese in 1030.{{sfn|Thoroczkay|2001|p=62}}

=== Conflicts with the Holy Roman Empire (1024–1031) ===

Stephen's brother-in-law, Emperor Henry, died on 13 July 1024.{{sfn|Wolfram|2006|p=40}} He was succeeded by a distant relative,{{sfn|Wolfram|2006|p=187}} [[Conrad II, Holy Roman Emperor|Conrad II]] (r. 1024–1039), who adopted an offensive foreign policy.{{sfn|Lenkey|2003|p=90}} Conrad II expelled Doge Otto Orseolo{{mdash}}the husband of Stephen's sister{{mdash}}from Venice in 1026.{{sfn|Györffy|1994|p=148}}{{sfn|Lenkey|2003|p=90}} He also persuaded the Bavarians to proclaim his own son, [[Henry III, Holy Roman Emperor|Henry]], as their duke in 1027, although Stephen's son Emeric had a strong claim to the [[Duchy of Bavaria]] through his mother.{{sfn|Wolfram|2006|p=187}} Emperor Conrad planned a marriage alliance with the Byzantine Empire and dispatched one of his advisors, Bishop [[Werner I (Bishop of Strasbourg)|Werner of Strasbourg]], to Constantinople.{{sfn|Butler|Cumming|Burns|1998|p=159}}{{sfn|Wolfram|2006|pp=197–198}} In the autumn of 1027, the bishop seemingly travelled as a pilgrim, but Stephen, who had been informed of his actual purpose, refused to let him enter into his country.{{sfn|Butler|Cumming|Burns|1998|p=159}}{{sfn|Wolfram|2006|pp=197–198}} Conrad II's biographer [[Wipo of Burgundy]] narrated that the Bavarians incited skirmishes along the common borders of Hungary and the Holy Roman Empire in 1029, causing a rapid deterioration in relations between the two countries.{{sfn|Györffy|1994|p=149}}{{sfn|Kristó|2003|p=74}}

Emperor Conrad personally led his armies to Hungary in June 1030 and plundered the lands west of the River [[Rába]].{{sfn|Györffy|1994|p=149}}{{sfn|Wolfram|2006|p=231}} However, according to the ''Annals of Niederalteich'', the emperor, suffering from consequences of the [[scorched earth]] tactics used by the Hungarian army,{{sfn|Kristó|2003|pp=74–75}} returned to Germany "without an army and without achieving anything, because the army was threatened by starvation and was captured by the Hungarians at [[Vienna]]".{{sfn|Wolfram|2006|p=231}} Peace was restored after Conrad had ceded the lands between the rivers [[Lajta]] and [[Fischa]] to Hungary in the summer of 1031.{{sfn|Györffy|1994|pp=149–150}}

{{Blockquote|At this same time, dissensions arose between the Pannonian nation and the Bavarians, through the fault of the Bavarians. And, as a result, King [Stephen] of Hungary made many incursions and raids in the realm of the Norici (that is, of the Bavarians). Disturbed on this account Emperor Conrad came upon the Hungarians with a great army. But King [Stephen], whose forces were entirely insufficient to meet the Emperor, relied solely on the guardianship of the Lord, which he sought with prayers and fasts proclaimed through his whole realm. Since the Emperor was not able to enter a kingdom so [[gyepü|fortified with rivers and forests]], he returned, after he had sufficiently avenged his injury with lootings and burnings on the borders of the kingdom; and it was his wish at a more opportune time to complete the things he had begun. His son, King [[Henry III, Holy Roman Emperor|Henry]], however, still a young boy entrusted to the care of Eigilbert, [[bishop of Freising]], received a legation of King [Stephen] which asked for peace; and solely with the counsel of the princes of the realm, and without his father's knowledge, he granted the favor of reconciliation.|[[Wipo of Burgundy|Wipo]], ''The Deeds of Conrad II''<ref>''The Deeds of Conrad II (Wipo)'' (ch. 26.), pp.&nbsp;85–86.</ref>}}

=== Last years (1031–1038) ===
[[File:Képes_krónika_-_44.oldal_-_Imre_herceg_temetése_és_Vazul_megvakíttatása_(1).jpg|alt=Prince Emeric's funeral and the blinding of Vazul|thumb|Prince [[Saint Emeric of Hungary|Emeric]]'s funeral and the blinding of [[Vazul]] (''[[Chronicon Pictum]]'', 1358)|left]]
Stephen's biographer, Hartvic, narrates that the King, whose children died one by one in infancy, "restrained the grief over their death by the solace on account of the love of his surviving son",<ref>''Hartvic, Life of King Stephen of Hungary'' (ch. 19), p. 390.</ref> [[Saint Emeric of Hungary|Emeric]].{{sfn|Kristó|Makk|1996|p=48}} However, Emeric was wounded in a hunting accident and died in 1031.{{sfn|Cartledge|2011|p=16}} After the death of his son, the elderly King could never "fully regain his former health",<ref>''The Hungarian Illuminated Chronicle'' (ch. 45.69), p. 107.</ref> according to the ''Illuminated Chronicle''.{{sfn|Kristó|Makk|1996|p=48}} Kristó writes that the picture, which has been preserved in Stephen's legends, of the king keeping the [[vigil (liturgy)|vigils]] and washing the feet of paupers, is connected with Stephen's last years, following the death of his son.{{sfn|Kristó|2001|p=32}}

Emeric's death jeopardized his father's achievements in establishing a Christian state,{{sfn|Györffy|1994|p=169}} because Stephen's cousin, [[Vazul]]{{mdash}}who had the strongest claim to succeed him{{mdash}}was suspected of an inclination towards paganism.{{sfn|Kontler|1999|pp=58–59}} According to the ''[[Annales Altahenses|Annals of Altaich]]'' Stephen disregarded his cousin's claim and nominated his sister's son, the Venetian [[Peter Orseolo]], as his heir.{{sfn|Györffy|1994|p=170}} The same source adds that Vazul was captured and blinded, and his three sons, [[Levente]], [[Andrew I of Hungary|Andrew]] and [[Béla I of Hungary|Béla]], were expelled from Hungary.{{sfn|Györffy|1994|p=170}} Stephen's legends refer to an unsuccessful attempt upon the elderly king's life by members of his court.{{sfn|Kristó|2001|p=32}} According to Kristó, the legends refer to a plot in which Vazul participated and his mutilation was a punishment for this act.{{sfn|Kristó|2001|p=32}} That Vazul's ears were filled with molten lead was only recorded in later sources, including the ''Illuminated Chronicle''.{{sfn|Kristó|2001|p=32}}

In the view of some historians, provisions in Stephen's ''Second Book of Laws'' on the "conspiracy against the king and the kingdom" imply that the book was promulgated after Vazul's unsuccessful plot against Stephen.{{sfn|Györffy|1994|p=135}}<ref>''Laws of King Stephen I'' (Stephen II:19), p. 11.</ref> However, this view has not been universally accepted.{{sfn|Györffy|1994|p=135}} Györffy states that the law book was issued, not after 1031, but around 1009.{{sfn|Györffy|1994|p=136}} Likewise, the authenticity of the decree on tithes is debated: according to Györffy, it was issued during Stephen's reign, but Berend, Laszlovszky and Szakács argue that it "might be a later addition".{{sfn|Berend|Laszlovszky|Szakács|2007|p=351}}{{sfn|Györffy|1994|p=136}}

Stephen died on 15 August 1038.{{sfn|Guiley|2001|p=136}} He was buried in the basilica of Székesfehérvár.{{sfn|Györffy|1994|p=170}} His reign was followed by a long period of civil wars, pagan uprisings and foreign invasions.{{sfn|Engel|2001|pp=29–32}}{{sfn|Molnár|2001|pp=25–27}} The instability ended in 1077 when [[Ladislaus I of Hungary|Ladislaus]], a grandson of Vazul, ascended the throne.{{sfn|Molnár|2001|p=27}}