Editing South West Africa (section)

==South African rule==
In 1915, during the [[South West Africa campaign]] of [[World War I]], South Africa captured the German colony. After the war, it was declared a [[League of Nations]] [[League of Nations mandate#Class C mandates|Class C Mandate territory]] under the [[Treaty of Versailles]], with the Union of South Africa responsible for the administration of South West Africa. From 1922, this included Walvis Bay, which, under the South West Africa Affairs Act, was governed as if it were part of the mandated territory.<ref name="geography">Ieuan Griffiths,[https://www.jstor.org/stable/pdf/40572467.pdf Walvis Bay: exclave no more] ''Geography'', Vol. 79, No. 4 (October 1994), page 354</ref> South West Africa remained a League of Nations Mandate until [[World War II]] and  the collapse of the League of Nations.<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=gqTjUjdvTQwC&pg=PA223|title=Ethnic Politics in Kenya and Nigeria|last=Mwakikagile|first=Godfrey|publisher=[[Nova Science Publishers, Inc.]]|year=2001|isbn=1560729678|location=Huntington, New York|page=223|access-date=2018-04-24|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180718084139/https://books.google.com/books?id=gqTjUjdvTQwC&pg=PA223|archive-date=2018-07-18|url-status=live}}</ref>

The Mandate was supposed to become a [[United Nations trust territories|United Nations Trust Territory]] when League of Nations Mandates were transferred to the [[United Nations]] following World War II. The [[Prime Minister of South Africa|Prime Minister]], [[Jan Smuts]], objected to South West Africa coming under UN control and refused to allow the territory's transition to independence, instead seeking to make it South Africa's fifth province in 1946.<ref>
John Dugard, ''The South West Africa/Namibia Dispute: Documents and Scholarly Writings on the Controversy Between South Africa and the United Nations'', University of California Press, 1973, [https://books.google.com/books?id=Yx2785DKKvUC&pg=PA125 page 124] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180718114503/https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Yx2785DKKvUC&lpg=PA125 |date=2018-07-18 }}
</ref>

Although this never occurred, in 1949, the South West Africa Affairs Act was amended to give representation in the [[Parliament of South Africa]] to whites in South West Africa, which gave them six seats in the [[House of Assembly (South Africa)|House of Assembly]] and four in the [[Senate of South Africa|Senate]].<ref>[https://books.google.com/books?id=VMF_-aVJSE4C&dq=%22thorough+acquaintance%2C+by+reason+of+his+official+experience+or+otherwise%22&pg=PA334 ''Argument and Change in World Politics: Ethics, Decolonization, and Humanitarian Intervention''], Neta Crawford
Cambridge University Press, 2002, page 334</ref>

This was to the advantage of the [[National Party (South Africa)|National Party]], which enjoyed strong support from the predominantly [[Afrikaners|Afrikaner]] and [[German Namibians|ethnic German]] white population in the territory.<ref>Newell M. Stultz, ''Afrikaner Politics in South Africa, 1934–1948'', University of California Press, 1974, [https://books.google.com/books?id=CPqYkLNxEQgC&pg=PA161 page 161] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180718114505/https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=CPqYkLNxEQgC&lpg=PA161 |date=2018-07-18 }}</ref> Between 1950 and 1977, all of South West Africa's parliamentary seats were held by the National Party.<ref>Vivienne Jabri, ''Mediating Conflict: Decision-making and Western Intervention in Namibia''], Manchester University Press, 1990, [https://books.google.com/books?id=WRnoAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA46 page 46] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180718114518/https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=WRnoAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA46 |date=2018-07-18 }}</ref>

An additional consequence of this was the extension of [[apartheid]] laws to the territory.<ref name="IFAA1990">{{cite book |last=Turok |first=Ben |author-link=Ben Turok |title=Witness from the frontline: aggression and resistance in Southern Africa |page=86 |publisher=Institute for African Alternatives |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=MtchAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA86 |year=1990 |isbn=187042512X |access-date=2018-07-18 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180718083840/https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=MtchAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA86 |archive-date=2018-07-18 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last=Hasan |first=Najmul |date=1975 |title=Namibia: South— West Africa |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/41393277 |journal=Pakistan Horizon |volume=28 |issue=3 |pages=63–64 |jstor=41393277 |issn=0030-980X}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Crawford |first=Neta |title=Argument and Change in World Politics |publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]] |year=2002 |pages=336}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Hebdon |first=Geoffrey |title=Zero Hour: A Countdown to the Collapse of South Africa's Apartheid System |year=2022 |pages=683}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Streissguth |first=Thomas |title=Namibia in Pictures |publisher=Twenty-First Century Books |year=2008 |pages=29}}</ref> This gave rise to several rulings at the [[International Court of Justice]], which in 1950 ruled that South Africa was not obliged to convert South West Africa into a UN trust territory, but was still bound by the League of Nations Mandate, with the [[United Nations General Assembly]] assuming the supervisory role. The ICJ also clarified that the General Assembly was empowered to receive petitions from the inhabitants of South West Africa and to call for reports from the mandatory nation, South Africa.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.icj-cij.org/icjwww/idecisions/isummaries/isswasummary500711.htm |title=SUMMARY: International Status of South-West Africa, Advisory Opinion |date=11 July 1950 |website=International Court of Justice  |access-date=2006-10-02 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20061002115908/http://www.icj-cij.org/icjwww/idecisions/isummaries/isswasummary500711.htm |archive-date=October 2, 2006 }}</ref> The General Assembly constituted the Committee on South West Africa to perform the supervisory functions.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.klausdierks.com/Chronology/index_united_nations.htm|title=Index-United Nations Organisations and Resolutions|website=Namibia Library of Dr. Klaus Dierks|access-date=2006-07-15|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060503031804/http://klausdierks.com/Chronology/index_united_nations.htm|archive-date=2006-05-03|url-status=live}}</ref>

In another Advisory Opinion issued in 1955, the Court further ruled that the General Assembly was not required to follow League of Nations voting procedures in determining questions concerning South West Africa.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.icj-cij.org/icjwww/idecisions/isummaries/itswasummary550607.htm |title=SUMMARY: Voting Procedure on Questions Relating to Reports and Petitions Concerning the Territory of South-West Africa, Advisory Opinion |date=7 June 1955 |website=International Court of Justice |access-date=2006-07-15 |url-status=dead  |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20061002114910/http://www.icj-cij.org/icjwww/idecisions/isummaries/itswasummary550607.htm |archive-date=October 2, 2006 }}</ref> In 1956, the Court further ruled that the committee had the power to grant hearings to petitioners from the mandated territory.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.icj-cij.org/icjwww/idecisions/isummaries/icswasummary560601.htm |title=SUMMARY: Admissibility of Hearings of Petitioners by the Committee on South-West Africa, Advisory Opinion |date=1 June 1956 |website=International Court of Justice |access-date=2006-07-15 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20061002120611/http://www.icj-cij.org/icjwww/idecisions/isummaries/icswasummary560601.htm |archive-date=October 2, 2006 }}</ref> In 1960, [[Ethiopian Empire|Ethiopia]] and [[Liberia]] filed a case in the International Court of Justice against South Africa alleging that South Africa had not fulfilled its mandatory duties. This case did not succeed, with the Court ruling in 1966 that they were not the proper parties to bring the case.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.icj-cij.org/icjwww/idecisions/isummaries/ilsaesasummary621221.htm |title=SUMMARY: South-West Africa (Ethiopia v. South Africa, Liberia v. South Africa) Judgment |date=21 December 1962 |website=International Court of Justice |access-date=2006-10-02 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20061002121749/http://www.icj-cij.org/icjwww/idecisions/isummaries/ilsaesasummary621221.htm |archive-date=October 2, 2006 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.icj-cij.org/icjwww/idecisions/isummaries/ilsaesasummary660718.htm |title=SUMMARY: South-West Africa (Liberia v. South Africa, Ethiopia v. South Africa) (Second Phase) Judgment |date=18 July 1966 |website=International Court of Justice |access-date=2006-07-15 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20061002115937/http://www.icj-cij.org/icjwww/idecisions/isummaries/ilsaesasummary660718.htm |archive-date=October 2, 2006 }}</ref>

===Mandate terminated===

There was a protracted struggle between South Africa and forces fighting for independence, particularly after the formation of the South West Africa People's Organisation ([[SWAPO]]) in 1960.

On 27 October 1966, the General Assembly passed resolution 2145 (XXI) which declared the Mandate terminated and that the Republic of South Africa had no further right to administer South West Africa.<ref>UN General Assembly, res n° 2154 (XXI), 17 November 1966. Available at http://www.un.org/documents/ga/res/21/ares21.htm {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160124233301/https://www.un.org/documents/ga/res/21/ares21.htm |date=2016-01-24 }} [recovered October 1, 2015]</ref> South African control over the territory nevertheless continued despite its illegality under international law.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://2001-2009.state.gov/r/pa/ho/time/pcw/98678.htm|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090205233840/http://2001-2009.state.gov/r/pa/ho/time/pcw/98678.htm|url-status=dead|archive-date=2009-02-05|title=The End of Apartheid|date=2009|access-date=5 February 2009|work=Archive: Information released online prior to January 20, 2009|publisher=United States Department of State|quote=South Africa had illegally occupied neighboring Namibia at the end of World War II, and since the mid-1970s, Pretoria had used it as a base to fight the communist party in Angola.}}</ref> In 1971, acting on a request for an Advisory Opinion from the [[United Nations Security Council]], the ICJ ruled that the continued presence of South Africa in Namibia was illegal and that South Africa was under an obligation to withdraw from Namibia immediately. It also ruled that all member states of the United Nations were under an obligation not to recognise as valid any act performed by South Africa on behalf of Namibia.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.icj-cij.org/docket/index.php?p1=3&p2=4&code=nam&case=53&k=a7|title=Cour internationale de Justice {{!}} International Court of Justice|website=www.icj-cij.org|access-date=2017-09-08|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170908201222/http://www.icj-cij.org/docket/index.php?p1=3&p2=4&code=nam&case=53&k=a7|archive-date=2017-09-08|url-status=live}}</ref>

South West Africa became known as Namibia by the UN when the General Assembly changed the territory's name by Resolution 2372 (XXII) of 12 June 1968.<ref>[http://legal.un.org/repertory/art77/english/rep_supp7_vol5-art77_e_advance.pdf Legal Repertory of Practice of United Nations Organs] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160303172411/http://legal.un.org/repertory/art77/english/rep_supp7_vol5-art77_e_advance.pdf |date=2016-03-03 }}</ref> SWAPO was recognised as representative of the [[Demographics of Namibia|Namibian people]], and gained UN observer status<ref>[http://daccess-dds-ny.un.org/doc/RESOLUTION/GEN/NR0/303/35/IMG/NR030335.pdf?OpenElement UNGA Resolution A/RES/31/152] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110728144356/http://daccess-dds-ny.un.org/doc/RESOLUTION/GEN/NR0/303/35/IMG/NR030335.pdf?OpenElement |date=2011-07-28 }} Observer status for the South West Africa People's Organisation</ref> when the territory of South West Africa was already removed from the [[United Nations list of non-self-governing territories|list of non-self-governing territories]].

In 1977, South Africa transferred control of [[Walvis Bay]] back to the [[Cape Province]], thereby making it an [[exclave]].<ref>
''The Green and the dry wood: The Roman Catholic Church (Vicariate of Windhoek) and the Namibian socio-political situation, 1971–1981'', Oblates of Mary Immaculate, 1983, [https://books.google.com/books?id=tj8vAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA6 page 6] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180718083906/https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=tj8vAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA6 |date=2018-07-18 }}
</ref>

===Bantustans (1968–1980)===
{{Main article|Bantustan}}
The South African authorities established 10 [[bantustan]]s in South West Africa in the late 1960s and early 1970s in accordance with the [[Odendaal Commission]], three of which were granted self-rule.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.worldstatesmen.org/Namibia_homelands.html|title=Namibian Homelands|first=Ben|last=Cahoon|website=www.worldstatesmen.org|access-date=2008-03-23|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110525214100/http://www.worldstatesmen.org/Namibia_homelands.html|archive-date=2011-05-25|url-status=live}}</ref> These bantustans were replaced with separate ethnicity based second-tier representative authorities in 1980.

{| class="wikitable sortable"
|-
! Bantustan
!Capital<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.long-damato.northwestern.edu/Pages-papers2/bantustan-proposals-SWAfrica.pdf|title=''South-West Africa, Proposed Homelands.'' in: The Bantustan Proposals for South-West Africa, p 179.|access-date=19 August 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160626094847/http://www.long-damato.northwestern.edu/Pages-papers2/bantustan-proposals-SWAfrica.pdf|archive-date=26 June 2016|url-status=dead}}</ref>
!Most represented tribe
!Legislative Council established
!Self-government
!Representative Authority years
|-
|{{flag|Ovamboland}}
|[[Ondangwa|Ondangua]]
|[[Ovambo people|Ovambo]]
|1968<ref>{{Cite book|title=A Survey of Race Relations in South Africa 1968|publisher=South African Institute of Race Relations|year=1969|pages=309–310}}</ref>
|1973<ref name=":0">{{Cite book|title=A Survey of Race Relations in South Africa 1973|publisher=South African Institute of Race Relations|year=1974|pages=384}}</ref>
|1980<ref>Representative Authority of the Ovambos Proclamation, 1980 (Proclamation AG. 23 of 1980)</ref>–1989 (1990)<ref name=":18">{{Cite web|title=Constitution of Namibia – Schedules|url=https://www.servat.unibe.ch/icl/wa01000_.html|access-date=19 June 2020|archive-date=21 June 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200621204439/https://www.servat.unibe.ch/icl/wa01000_.html|url-status=live}}</ref>
|-
|{{flag|Kavangoland}}
|[[Rundu]]
|[[Kavango people|Kavango]]
|1970<ref>{{Cite book|title=A Survey of Race Relations in South Africa 1970|publisher=South African Institute of Race Relations|year=1971|pages=285}}</ref>
|1973<ref name=":1">{{Cite book|title=A Survey of Race Relations in South Africa 1973|publisher=South African Institute of Race Relations|year=1974|pages=392}}</ref>
|1980<ref>Representative Authority of the Kavangos Proclamation, 1980 (Proclamation AG. 26 of 1980)</ref>–1989 (1990)<ref name=":18" />
|-
|{{flag|East Caprivi}}<ref>Renamed "Lozi" in 1975. {{Cite book|title=A Survey of Race Relations in South Africa 1974|publisher=South African Institute of Race Relations|year=1975|pages=419}}</ref>
|[[Katima Mulilo]]
|[[Lozi people|Lozi]]
|1972<ref>{{Cite book|title=A Survey of Race Relations in South Africa 1972|url=https://archive.org/details/surveyofracerela00horr|url-access=registration|publisher=South African Institute of Race Relations|year=1973|pages=[https://archive.org/details/surveyofracerela00horr/page/446 446]}}</ref>
|1976<ref name=":2">{{Cite book|title=A Survey of Race Relations in South Africa 1976|publisher=South African Institute of Race Relations|year=1977|pages=466}}</ref>
|1980<ref>Representative Authority of the Caprivians Proclamation, 1980 (Proclamation AG. 29 of 1980)</ref>–1989 (1990)<ref name=":18" />
|-
|{{flagicon image|Flag of Namaland.svg}} [[Namaland]]
|[[Keetmanshoop]]
|[[Nama people|Nama]]
|1976<ref>{{Cite book|title=A Survey of Race Relations in South Africa 1976|publisher=South African Institute of Race Relations|year=1977|pages=465}}</ref>
|—
|1980<ref>Representative Authority of the Namas Proclamation, 1980 (Proclamation AG. 35 of 1980)</ref>–1989 (1990)<ref name=":18" />
|-
|{{flag|Rehoboth}}
|[[Rehoboth, Namibia|Rehoboth]]
|[[Baster]]<ref>An elected Advisory Council for the Rehoboth Basters had already existed since 1928: {{Cite book|title=A Survey of Race Relations in South Africa 1976|publisher=South African Institute of Race Relations|year=1977|pages=463}}</ref>
|1977<ref>Rehoboth Self-Government Act, 1976 (Act No. 56 of 1976)</ref><ref>{{Cite book|title=A Survey of Race Relations in South Africa 1976|publisher=South African Institute of Race Relations|year=1977|pages=463–465}}, {{Cite book|title=A Survey of Race Relations in South Africa 1977|publisher=South African Institute of Race Relations|year=1978|pages=601–602}}</ref>
|—<ref>Self-government in terms of the pre-1980 homelands system was provided for in the Rehoboth Self-Government Act, 1976 (Act No. 56 of 1976), but was only partially implemented before 1980. A "Kaptein's Council" as the executive and a Legislative Council were established in 1977.</ref>
|1980<ref>The institutional framework established according to the Rehoboth Self-Government Act, 1976 (Act No. 56 of 1976)—a "Kaptein's Council" as the executive and a Legislative Council—remained in force as amended in 1980 and served as the basis of the Rehoboth Representative Authority</ref>–1989 (1990)<ref name=":18" /><ref>On 20 March 1990, one day before Namibia finally became independent on 21 March, Rehoboth unilaterally declared its independence from Namibia: {{Cite web|url=http://rehobothbasters.org/casedetails.php?id=213|title=''Declaration of Independence 1990.'' Rehoboth Basters, 20 March 1990|date=24 November 2019|website=Rehoboth Basters|access-date=24 November 2019|archive-date=23 September 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200923202755/http://rehobothbasters.org/casedetails.php?id=213|url-status=dead}}</ref>
|-
|{{flag|Damaraland}}
|[[Khorixas|Welwitschia]]
|[[Damara people|Damara]]
|1977<ref>An Advisory Council had been in existence since 1970: {{Cite book|title=A Survey of Race Relations in South Africa 1970|publisher=South African Institute of Race Relations|year=1971|pages=286}}</ref><ref>The Damara council established in 1977 was the first institution to receive the title "Representative Authority", already before this designation was introduced in 1980 under the new ethnic second-tier government system also for the other population groups: {{Cite book|title=A Survey of Race Relations in South Africa 1977|publisher=South African Institute of Race Relations|year=1978|pages=602}}</ref>
|—
|1980<ref>Representative Authority of the Damaras Proclamation, 1980 (Proclamation AG. 32 of 1980)</ref>–1989 (1990)<ref name=":18" />
|-
|{{flag|Hereroland}}
|[[Okakarara]]
|[[Herero people|Herero]]
|—<ref>Because of internal strife among different Herero groups, no unified institutions were established for the Herero people before 1980. Two districts of Hereroland (West and East) were formed in 1970. The chief of Hereroland West, Clemens Kapuuo, claimed to be the paramount chief of all Hereros since 1970, but this claim was not recognized by the other Herero groups: {{Cite book|title=A Survey of Race Relations in South Africa 1972|url=https://archive.org/details/surveyofracerela00horr|url-access=registration|publisher=South African Institute of Race Relations|year=1973|pages=[https://archive.org/details/surveyofracerela00horr/page/449 449]}}, {{Cite book|title=A Survey of Race Relations in South Africa 1975|publisher=South African Institute of Race Relations|year=1976|pages=340}}</ref>
|—
|1980<ref>Representative Authority of the Hereros Proclamation, 1980 (Proclamation AG. 50 of 1980)</ref>–1989 (1990)<ref name=":18" />
|-
|{{flagicon image|Flag of South Africa (1928–1994).svg}} [[Tswanaland]]
|[[Aminuis]]
|[[Tswana people|Tswana]]
|—
|—
|1980<ref>Representative Authority of the Tswanas Proclamation, 1980 (Proclamation AG. 47 of 1980)</ref>–1989 (1990)<ref name=":18" />
|-
|{{flag|Bushmanland}}
|[[Tsumkwe]]
|[[San people|San]]
|—
|—
|—<ref>"The Bushmen were excluded because they had evinced no interest in having a governing authority." {{Cite book|title=A Survey of Race Relations in South Africa 1980|publisher=South African Institute of Race Relations|year=1981|pages=648}}</ref>
|-
|{{flag|Kaokoland}}
|[[Opuwo|Ohopoho]]
|[[Himba people|Himba]]
|—
|—
|—<ref>Kaokoland was very scarcely populated and greatly affected by the struggle for independence of Namibia, and most specifically by the so-called "[[South African Border War|bush war]]" that was fought across the border with Angola. No unified institutions were established in Kaokoland either before or after 1980.</ref>
|}

<gallery>
File:Namibia homelands 78.jpeg|[[Bantustan]]s in South West Africa as of 1978
File:Plan Odendaal.png|Allocation of land to Bantustans according to the [[Odendaal Plan]], with grey being the [[Etosha National Park]]
</gallery>

===Three-tier system of governance (1980–1989)===
The South African government convened the [[Turnhalle Constitutional Conference]] between 1976 and 1978 with a view to achieving an "internal" solution to the status of South West Africa. The conference was attended by representatives of 11 ethnic groups: [[Herero people|Herero]], [[Baster]], [[Tswana people|Tswana]], [[Damara people|Damara]], [[Ovambo people|Ovambo]], [[Lozi people|Lozi]], [[Nama people|Nama]], [[Kavango people|Kavango]], [[San people|San]], the [[Coloured people in Namibia|Coloureds]], and the [[White Namibians|Whites]]. However, the largest freedom movement, [[SWAPO]], was not invited.<ref name=DTA>{{cite web
 |url          = http://rehobothbasters.com/newsdetails.php?id=136
 |title        = DTA 'Down but Not Out'
 |first        = Kuvee
 |last         = Kangueehi
 |publisher    = [[New Era (Namibia)|New Era]] (via rehobothbasters.com)
 |date         = 22 October 2004
 |access-date  = 8 September 2011
 |archive-date = 4 March 2016
 |archive-url  = https://web.archive.org/web/20160304035017/http://rehobothbasters.com/newsdetails.php?id=136
 |url-status   = dead
}}</ref> The conference produced a 29-page document entitled ''"Petition for the establishment of an interim government"''. The petition contained a request to set up an interim government for the territory, as well as a draft constitution for "a republican, democratic state" to be known as "South West Africa/Namibia" with its own flag and national anthem.{{sfn|Landis|1977|p=12-13}}

Under the proposals, there was to be a three-tiered system of governance. The first tier, the Central Government, would consist of a  National Assembly which would appoint a Council of Ministers. The second tier would consist of ethnically based Representative Authorities and the third tier would be made up of Local Authorities.<ref name="www2.mnhs.org">[http://www2.mnhs.org/library/findaids/00697/pdfa/00697-00100.pdf Find aids]mnhs.org {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230712164852/http://www2.mnhs.org/library/findaids/00697/pdfa/00697-00100.pdf |date=12 July 2023 }}</ref>

====Tier one: Central Government====
;Interim Government (1980–1983)
The upper tier of governance consisted of an elected fifty member National Assembly with legislative powers. The assembly would appoint a Council of Ministers with executive powers. [[1978 South West African legislative election|Multi-racial elections]] for the National Assembly were held in December 1978. The [[Democratic Turnhalle Alliance]] (DTA) won 41 of the 50 seats and its leader, [[Dirk Mudge]] would become Chairman of the Council of Ministers on 1 July 1980. Johannes Skrywer, also of the DTA, became Speaker of the National Assembly.<ref>{{Cite news
|title=Johannes Skrywer gestorben
|trans-title=Johannes Skrywer died
|language=German
|work=[[Allgemeine Zeitung (Namibia)|Allgemeine Zeitung]]
|date=18 September 2014
|url=http://www.az.com.na/lokales/johannes-skrywer-gestorben.420387|archive-url=https://archive.today/20140918074852/http://www.az.com.na/lokales/johannes-skrywer-gestorben.420387|url-status=dead|archive-date=18 September 2014}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web
|title=Democratic Elections in Namibia. An International Experiment in Nation Building
|publisher=[[National Democratic Institute for International Affairs]]
|date=June 1989
|page=12
|url=https://www.ndi.org/files/158_na_election_060189.pdf
|ref=CITEREFNDI1989}}</ref>

The interim government collapsed on 18 January 1983 following the resignation of the Council of Ministers citing interference from the South African government and proposals to create a State Council.<ref>{{cite book
|last1=Nohlen
|first1=Dieter
|last2=Krennerich
|first2=Michael
|last3=Thibaut
|first3=Bernhard
|title=Elections in Africa: a data handbook
|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=9v1MnKYHSLoC&pg=PA660
|year=1999
|publisher=Oxford University Press
|isbn=0-19-829645-2
|page=660}}</ref>

;Direct rule (1983–1985)

Following the collapse of the Interim Government, its legislative and executive powers returned to South African Administrator-General [[Willie van Niekerk]], who was assisted by and Jan F Greebe as chief executive officer. The Representative Authorities and Local Authorities continued to function as intended during this period.

;Transitional Government of National Unity (1985–1989)
{{main|Transitional Government of National Unity (Namibia)}}

A [[Multi-Party Conference (Namibia)|Multi-Party Conference]] was established in September 1983 to suggest arrangements for the formation of a new Central Government. Nineteen parties participated in the conference, but again SWAPO was excluded.<ref name="KD83">{{cite web
|title=Chronology of Namibian History, 1983
|url=http://www.klausdierks.com/Chronology/125.htm
|last=Dierks
|first=Klaus
|author-link=Klaus Dierks
|access-date=29 October 2014}}</ref>

The Multi-Party Conference issued the ''Windhoek Declaration of Basic Principles'' in 1984<ref name="KD84">{{cite web
|title=Chronology of Namibian History, 1984
|url=http://www.klausdierks.com/Chronology/126.htm
|last=Dierks
|first=Klaus
|author-link=Klaus Dierks
|access-date=29 October 2014}}</ref> and a ''Bill of Fundamental Rights and Objectives'' the following year, resulting in the establishment of a Transitional Government of National Unity (TGNU) on 17 June 1985.<ref name=KD85>{{Cite web
|title=Chronology of Namibian History, 1985
|last=Dierks
|first=Klaus
|author-link=Klaus Dierks
|publisher=klausdierks.com
|access-date=29 October 2014
|url=http://www.klausdierks.com/Chronology/127.htm}}</ref>

Unlike the previous Interim Government, the TGNU was not directly elected but instead consisted of an appointed 62 member National Assembly and an 8-member Council of Ministers which would be led by each member on a three-month rotational basis. The DTA was awarded 22 seats in the National Assembly with five other parties being awarded 8 seats each.{{sfn|NDI|1989|p=13}} Johannes Skrywer would again become Speaker of the National Assembly and [[Dawid Bezuidenhout]] would be the first Chairman of the Council of Ministers.<ref>{{cite web | url=https://www.namibiana.de/namibia-information/who-is-who/personen/infos-zur-person/johannes-skrywer.html | title=Johannes Skrywer vorgestellt im Namibiana Buchdepot }}</ref><ref>{{usurped|1=[https://web.archive.org/web/20230710164018/https://invenio.unidep.org/invenio//record/23713?ln Address by Mr David Bezuidenhout. First chairman of the cabinet at the inauguration of the transitional government of national unity in Windhoek on monday, 17 june 1985]}}</ref>

====Tier two: Representative Authorities====
The second-tier of governance in South West Africa consisted of ethnic-based Representative Authorities which replaced the previous system of [[Bantustan]]s that were established in the late 1960s and early 1970s. Each authority would have executive and legislative competencies, being made up of elected Legislative Assemblies who would appoint Executive Committees led by chairmen. Representative Authorities had responsibility for land tenure, agriculture, education up to primary level, teachers' training, health services, and social welfare and pensions and their Legislative Assemblies had the ability to pass legislation known as Ordinances.<ref>{{cite web|title= Official Gazette|website=lac.org.na
|url=https://www.lac.org.na/laws/1982/whi23.pdf|access-date=18 March 2024}}</ref> Unlike the former Bantustans, Representative Authorities functioned on the basis of ethnicity only and were no longer based on geographically defined areas. 

Representative Authorities were created for [[White Namibians|Whites]], [[Coloured people in Namibia|Coloureds]], [[Ovambos]], [[Kavango people|Kavangos]], [[Lozi people|Lozi]], [[Damaras]], [[Nama people|Namas]], [[Tswanas]], and [[Herero people|Herero]].<ref>{{cite web | url=http://www.orusovo.com/namcon/sched8.htm | title=Constitution of Namibia - Schedule 8 }}</ref> A similar body had been established for [[Rehoboth Basters]] by the Rehoboth Self-Determination Act, 1976. An advisory council was established for [[San Bushmen]] in 1986. No representative body was established for [[Himba people|Himbas]].<ref>{{cite web | url=https://www.worldstatesmen.org/Namibia_homelands.html | title=Namibian Homelands }}</ref>

====Tier three: Local authorities====
Local authorities formed the lowest tier of governance in South West Africa. Previously established local government bodies would continue to exist and new ones could be formed. In urban areas, the local authority would be an elected local council. In rural areas where local governance structures was based on traditional customary law, the relevant Representative Authority could support their further development.<ref name="www2.mnhs.org"/>

===Transition to independence (1989–1990)===
The Three-tier system of governance was suspended on 28 February 1989 following the signing of a [[Tripartite Accord (1988)|peace agreement]] the previous year. As stipulated by [[United Nations Security Council Resolution 435]], a [[United Nations Transition Assistance Group]] (UNTAG) was deployed on 1 April 1989. [[1989 Namibian parliamentary election|Elections]] to a Constituent Assembly were held in November 1989 and the territory became independent as the [[Namibia|Republic of Namibia]] on 21 March 1990. [[Walvis Bay]] and the [[Penguin Islands]] remained under South African control until 1994.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.un.org/Depts/los/LEGISLATIONANDTREATIES/PDFFILES/TREATIES/ZAF-NAM1994OI.PDF|title=Treaty between the Government of the Republic of South Africa and the Government of the Republic of Namibia with respect to Walvis Bay and the off-shore Islands, 28 February 1994|access-date=29 June 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170721011519/http://www.un.org/Depts/los/LEGISLATIONANDTREATIES/PDFFILES/TREATIES/ZAF-NAM1994OI.PDF|archive-date=21 July 2017|url-status=live|df=dmy-all}}</ref>