Editing South African Republic (section)

==History==
===Establishment===
The Boer republics emerged when the British had annexed the Cape Colony from the Dutch in 1806, in order to prevent the sea routes to the East (India etc.) from falling to [[Napoleon]]. This area was inhabited by the [[Boers]], who, dissatisfied with British rule, decided to leave the colony and move into the hinterland of South Africa in what became the [[Great Trek]]. These Boers then settled these lands, becoming farmers.

The South African Republic came into existence on 17 January 1852,{{sfn|Eybers|1918|pp=357–359}} when the British signed the [[Sand River Convention]] treaty with about 40,000&nbsp;[[Boer people]], recognising their independence in the region to the north of the [[Vaal River]], which had previously been under British annexation as the [[Orange River Sovereignty|Orange Rivers Sovereignty]].

The first president of the ZAR was [[Marthinus Wessel Pretorius]], elected in 1857, son of Boer leader [[Andries Pretorius]], who commanded the Boers to victory at the [[Battle of Blood River]]. The capital was established at [[Potchefstroom]] and later moved to [[Pretoria]]. The parliament was called the {{lang|af|[[Volksraad of the South African Republic|Volksraad]]}} and had 24 members.

===British annexation===

By the 1870s, the British [[Secretary of State for the Colonies]], [[Henry Herbert, 4th Earl of Carnarvon|Lord Carnarvon]], adopted a policy of confederating South Africa, in order to solve the problems of a restless frontier and of containing the Boers, which both threatened their colonies of Natal and the Cape of Good Hope. These colonies were absolutely vital in providing a route to India, which was Britain's prime colony.<ref name=":0">{{Cite journal |last=Hattersley |first=A. F. |date=1936 |title=Historical Revision: LXXVII. – The Annexation of the Transvaal, 1877 |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/24401269 |journal=History |volume=21 |issue=81 |pages=45 |doi=10.1111/j.1468-229X.1936.tb00681.x |jstor=24401269 |issn=0018-2648}}</ref> Confederation of the South African region was thought to be very beneficial for the British, as it would "cheapen the administration of affairs" and reduce the need for imperial money and troops.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Porter |first=Bernard |title=The Lion's Share |publisher=Routledge |year=1996 |edition=6th}}</ref>

The first issue that prompted the annexation of Transvaal was the prospect that the Boers might gain an outlet to the sea, which the British government was trying to prevent, as shown by the annexation of [[Colony of Natal|Natal]], which had previously been a Boer republic called [[Natalia Republic|Natalia]]. This annexation happened because the [[Patrice de MacMahon|MacMahon]] award gave the [[Maputo Bay|Delagoa bay]] to the Portuguese, who were friendly to the Boers. The Transvaal government immediately took steps to acquire a loan to build a railway there, and even led discussions to purchase the bay outright. This railway and purchase caused the loss of the only control that the British had, since previously the British could at the very least restrict the supply of arms and ammunition that was exported and fell into the hands of the Boers and natives and thereby rein in what the British saw as the anarchy in the Transvaal.<ref>{{Cite news |last=Volksraad Commission |date=21 July 1868 |title=Report on the Zoutpansberg Question |work=The Natal Witness}}</ref> Additionally, the sea outlet that the Boers acquired which was outside the control of the British made persuading the Boers to enter a South African confederation far more difficult, as the Boers as a result achieved greater independence.<ref name=":0" />

Moreover, the Foreign Office was concerned that the opening of Delagoa Bay could signal the involvement of other nations in the Transvaal, which could threaten the Cape Colony. This concern was intensified by the fact that some German merchants had already approached Bismark with the proposition that he annex the Transvaal, which proposition, although rejected, raised the possibility of the Boers requesting German protection, which in turn raised the possibility of the appearance of a foreign and unfriendly power in the Cape which could threaten Britain's position there. These fears were further stoked by the trip that [[Thomas François Burgers|Thomas Burgers]], the president of Transvaal took to Europe, during which he tried to negotiate a loan for a railway, as well as possible European alliances.

The second issue that prompted the annexation was native policy and Boer relations with local African kingdoms. The British considered these relations a problem ever since the founding of the ZAR. Only one year after the [[Sand River Convention|Sand Rivers Convention]], the Lieutenant-Governor of Natal, [[Benjamin Pine]], reported that the Boers had interpreted the treaty as having placed Zululand under their exclusive control. Pine stated that such a union of the Zulus and the Boers, who had wanted to create a settlement in the North-West corner of Zululand, would imperil the safety of Natal.<ref>Pine writing to Secretary of State, 3rd June 1853</ref> This combination meant that control of the land around the areas of [[Utrecht, South Africa|Utrecht]]  would be in dispute between the Boers and the Zulus, raising tension in the region. The Boers had also been acting provocatively towards the Bantu peoples living in Bechuanaland: for instance, in 1852, Boer commandos raided the town of Kwena, taking many prisoners, and in 1857 a Boer commandos led another raid on [[Batlhaping tribe|Batlhaping]], after claiming that the tribesmen stole their cattle. For the British, these conflicts had a high chance for escalating and presented big problems no matter how they turned out: if the Boers won in their war against the Zulus, there would be a substantial increase of Zulu refugees into the already crowded area of Natal, and the displacement of peoples had been shown to create an atmosphere conducive to war, as shown by the [[Xhosa Wars|Xhosa wars]]). If the Zulus won, other independent tribes such as the [[Bantu peoples of South Africa|Bantu]], the [[Pondoland|Pondo]], [[Swazi people|Swazi]], [[Pedi people|Bapedi]], and others, would gain confidence that they might obtain their independence from the British or at least offer the British resistance, endangering the Cape Colony. Annexation was therefore the only way of preventing either of these outcomes.

What precipitated action and confirmed the aforementioned fears was that in 1876, war broke out between the Boers and the Bapedi chief Sekhukhune. Initially, the Boers faced heavy defeats: the Republic was close to bankruptcy and its siege of Sekhukhune's stronghold failed because commando members objected to Burgers's theology, calling him a heretic, and abandoned the siege in droves. [[Henry Barkly|Sir Henry Barkley]] exaggerated this failure as a major and decisive defeat of the Boers, and was thereby led to anticipate an immediate application to the High Commissioner to take over the country.  A.N. Pelzer wrote: "Although Sekhukhune made overtures for peace, he was not defeated and this fact, together with the shaky financial position, gave Sir [[Theophilus Shepstone]] the pretext he required to annex the republic [as the [[Transvaal Colony|Transvaal]], a British colony, on 12 April 1877]."<ref>{{cite book|title = Standard Encyclopaedia of Southern Africa|location = Cape Town|publisher = Nasou}}</ref><ref>Alan F. Hattersley, "The Annexation of the Transvaal, 1877." ''History'' 21.81 (1936): 41–47. [https://www.jstor.org/stable/24401269 online]</ref> Barkly's warning hastened the action of Lord Carnarvon and led to the dispatch of Sir Theophilus Shepstone, who happened to be in England, on his mission as special commissioner "to carry out any negotiations which may be found necessary and practicable." Shepstone's warrant authorised him to annex the Transvaal, provided he was satisfied that a sufficient number of the inhabitants, or the legislature, desired it.<ref name=":0" /> By the time Shepstone arrived, however, the Bapedi and the Boers had signed a peace treaty. However, this conflict cannot be lightly dismissed as "the picturesque pretext" for annexation.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Brookes |first=E.H |title=History of Native Policy in South Africa |year=1924 |edition=1st |pages=123, 420–422}}</ref> In spite of the Boer "victory," on 16 February 1877, the Boers and Bapedi, mediated by [[Alexander Merensky]], signed a peace treaty at [[Botshabelo, Mpumalanga|Botshabelo]]). Nonetheless, the situation could not be described as anything but critical. The war had been expensive, leading the government of the Republic to be insolvent, and the desertion of Boer commandos gave the Zulus, the arch-enemies of the Boers, the impression that the Transvaal was weak, as they had been barely able to defeat Sekhukhune, who they considered a minor vassal. In the spring and summer of 1876–77, frontier skirmishes between the Zulus and Boers flared up once again, and [[Cetshwayo|Cetewayo]], the Zulu king, began moving his [[impi]]s towards the border between the Transvaal and Zululand.

Believing that the only answer to the instability of the region was British intervention, senior [[War Office]] official [[Garnet Wolseley, 1st Viscount Wolseley|Sir Garnet Wolseley]] argued that Britain should "use Cetewayo as a powerful lever to influence wavering spirit". It has therefore been suggested that the danger that the Zulus presented was specifically manufactured by the British to induce the Boers to accept annexation, and the impis had been massed on the border "on a hint from Shepstone".<ref>{{Cite book |last=Reitz |first=F.W |title=A Century of Wrong |year=1900 |pages=27}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Walker |first=E.A |title=History of South Africa |year=1928 |pages=371}}</ref> This suggestion is supported by the presence of Zulu emissaries in March 1877 in Natal stating that the Zulu army had massed "in readiness at the call of Somtseu (Shepstone) to go round towards the upper side of the Dutch."  Moreover, Shepstone requested [[Henry Ernest Gascoyne Bulwer|Sir Henry Bulwer]], the British Lieutenant-Governor of Natal, to cease the importation of military materiel into the Transvaal.<ref>S.N.A. ''Reports and Messages'', vol. 370 (Natal Archives), p. 90</ref>

However, the independence of the Zulu kingdom must not be understated, and the influence that Shepstone had over Cetewayo should not be exaggerated. What kept the Zulus loyal to the British was their fear of the Boers: but once the Zulus realized that the Boers were not a threat, they realised that they did not need to acquiesce to British demands.<ref name=":0" /> This is shown by the response that Cetewayo made to the calls for peace from the Lieutenant-Governor of Natal: "I shall not act on my own account. I shall not agree to any laws or rules from Natal." Writing on the 14th February 1877, Shepstone asserted: "While I am here, Cetewayo will do nothing; but if I were to withdraw without completing my mission[annexation], I believe that not only the Zulus but every native tribe in the Transvaal and bordering on it would attack and wipe it out." The danger of a Zulu attack was therefore very real, and not invented by the British. However, the British did apply pressure on the Boers to excite apprehensions of the danger the Zulus presented by cutting off Boer access to the coast, which prevented them from profiting from customs duties on maritime imports and exports, as well as cutting off their source of arms, which contributed to their fear of a Zulu attack.{{fact|date=September 2024}}

In 1877, Shepstone left Natal for Pretoria. He was warmly received by [[Thomas François Burgers|Burgers]], the president of the Transvaal. Since the country was on the eve of an election which Burgers was bound to lose due to his unpopularity, Sir Theophilius therefore "was convinced beyond any doubt of Burgers' support against their common enemy: Kruger",<ref>{{Cite book |last=Uys |first=C.J. |title=In the Era of Shepstone |year=1933 |pages=272}}</ref> since Kruger was Burger's primary rival in the election, against whom he could leverage the aid of the Natalian (Shepstone). Thomas Burgers hoped to use the presence of Shepstone to induce the Volksraad to accept, as an alternative to annexation, a reform to the constitution that would strengthen his executive authority and prolong his rule by two more years. Even when Shepstone informed Burgers of his determination to go through with annexing the Transvaal, Burgers assured Shepstone of his co-operation.<ref name=":0" />

It is argued by some that Shepstone had annexed the area in haste, "without troubling to ascertain the real drift of Dutch opinion."<ref>{{Cite book |last=Low and Sanders |title=Political history of England, Vol. 12 |year=1911 |pages=315}}</ref> However, his decision was certainly not made in haste, as he remained in Pretoria for three months before making a proclamation of annexation, at which time he was in contact with the members of the community in Pretoria. Moreover, due to the economic depression, as well as the "incurable insolvency" of the government, the [[Burgher (Boer republics)|burghers]] were ready to support the annexation, which was expected to solve these problems, whilst providing them protection from the natives.<ref name=":0" /> Additionally, the state attorney, Dr Jorissen, opined that, had Shepstone summoned the Volksraad after annexation, he would have obtained a vote of confidence.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Jorissen |first=E.J.P. |title=Transvaalsche Herinneringen |year=1897 |pages=34}}</ref>

At Pretoria the annexation was received quietly enough. The republican printing press (De Volksstem) made no difficulty over the printing of Shepstone's proclamation. Despite the official protest of the executive council, all but one of its members retained office under the new administration, and no military incidents occurred during or immediately after the annexation. Sir [[Garnet Wolseley]], High Commissioner for Southeast Africa, declared war on Sekhukhune. With British and allied troops, including the Swazis who had supported Burgers, in 1879 Wolseley defeated Sekhukhune and imprisoned him in Pretoria. With the Bapedi threat removed, the Burghers were no longer so amenable to British rule.

On 13 December 1880, the members of the last {{lang|af|Volksraad}} were summoned to a meeting at [[Krugersdorp|Paardekraal]]. The meeting placed authority in the hands of a triumvirate: [[Paul Kruger]], [[Piet Joubert]], and [[Marthinus Wessel Pretorius]]. They declared [[Heidelberg, Gauteng|Heidelberg]] their seat of government and hoisted the [[Vierkleur]] there on 16 December. The war, not officially declared to the occupying British troops, opened with [[Battle of Bronkhorstspruit|an irregular attack on a British regiment on the march at Bronkhorstspruit]]. The British garrisons in the Transvaal were besieged, but only one fell to the republicans.

The Boers defeated the British at [[Battle of Laing's Nek|Laing's Nek]] and [[Ingogo]], and on 27 February 1881, at [[Battle of Majuba Hill|Majuba]], General Sir [[George Pomeroy Colley]] fell at the head of his troops. While the British would in other circumstances have sent more troops and defeated the rebels, Prime Minister [[William Ewart Gladstone|William Gladstone]] chose to make peace. Drawing up of the detailed peace treaty—the [[Pretoria Convention]]—was left in the hands of a royal commission comprising Sir [[Hercules Robinson]], General Sir [[Evelyn Wood (British Army officer)|Evelyn Wood]] and Justice [[John de Villiers, 1st Baron de Villiers|John de Villiers]] of the Cape Colony. Britain now referred to the territory as the Transvaal State, but the {{lang|af|[[Volksraad of the South African Republic|Volksraad]]}} regarded the old South African Republic as having been restored.{{Citation needed|date=January 2020}}

===Independence===
The ZAR became fully independent on 27 February 1884, when the [[London Convention (1884)|London Convention]] was signed. The country independently also entered into various agreements with other foreign countries after that date. On 3 November 1884 the country signed a postal convention with the government of the [[Cape Colony]] and later a similar convention with the [[Orange Free State]].{{sfn|Eybers|1918|p=477}}

In November 1859,{{sfn|Eybers|1918|pp=420–422}} the independent Republics of [[Republic of Lydenburg|Lijdenburg]] and [[Republic of Utrecht|Utrecht]] merged with the ZAR. On 9 May 1887, [[Burgher (Boer republics)|burghers]] from the territories of [[Stellaland]] and [[State of Goshen|Goosen]] (sometimes referred to as "Goshen") were granted the ZAR franchise.{{sfn|Eybers|1918|p=479}} On 25 July 1895, the burghers that took part in the battle at [[Zoutpansberg]]{{sfn|Eybers|1918|p=505}} were granted citizenship of the ZAR.

===Collapse and conquest===
{{Main|Second Boer War}}