Editing Sonora (section)

==History==
{{Main|History of Sonora}}

===Pre-Hispanic period===
Evidence of human existence in the state dates back over 10,000 years, with some of the best-known remains at the [[San Dieguito complex]] in the [[El Pinacate y Gran Desierto de Altar Biosphere Reserve|El Pinacate Desert]]. The first humans were nomadic hunter gatherers who used tools made from stones, seashells, and wood.<ref name="rincones3637">Gonzalez, pp. 36–37</ref><ref name="gorenstein242">Foster, p. 242</ref> During much of the prehistoric period, the environmental conditions were less severe than they are today, with similar but more dense vegetation spread over a wider area.<ref name="gorenstein243">Foster, p. 243</ref>
[[File:Cuvieronius hyodon Mexico.png|thumb|Drawing of ''[[Cuvieronius]],'' the species of [[gomphothere]] found at the [[El Fin del Mundo]] site]]
The oldest [[Clovis culture]] site in North America is believed to be [[El Fin del Mundo]] in northwestern Sonora. It was discovered during a 2007 survey. It features occupation dating around 13,390 calibrated years [[Before Present]]. At the site, remains of the [[gomphothere]] ''[[Cuvieronius]]'' were found associated with [[Clovis point|Clovis spear points]], suggesting that the animals had been hunted.<ref name="Sanchez2014">{{Cite journal | last1 = Sanchez | first1 = G. | last2 = Holliday | first2 = V. T. | last3 = Gaines | first3 = E. P. | last4 = Arroyo-Cabrales | first4 = J. | last5 = Martínez-Tagüeñ | first5 = N. | last6 = Kowler | first6 = A. | last7 = Lange | first7 = T. | last8 = Hodgins | first8 = G. W. L. | last9 = Mentzer | first9 = S. M. | last10 = Sanchez-Morales | first10 = I. | date = 2014-07-14 | title = Human (Clovis)–gomphothere (''Cuvieronius'' sp.) association ~13,390 calibrated yBP in Sonora, Mexico  | journal = [[PNAS]] | volume =  111| issue = 30 | pages =  10972–10977| doi = 10.1073/pnas.1404546111 |bibcode = 2014PNAS..11110972S | pmid=25024193 | pmc=4121807| doi-access = free }}</ref>

Agriculture first appeared around {{nowrap|400 BCE}} and {{nowrap|200 CE}} in the river valleys. Remains of ceramics have been found dating from {{nowrap|750 CE}} with diversification from 800 and {{nowrap|1300 CE}}<ref name="gorenstein242"/> Between 1100 and 1350, the region had socially complex small villages with well-developed trade networks. The lowland central coast, however, seems never truly to have adopted agriculture.<ref name="gorenstein243"/> Because Sonora and much of the northwest does not share many of the cultural traits of that area, it is not considered part of [[Mesoamerica]]. Though evidence exists of trade between the peoples of Sonora and Mesoamerica, [[Guasave, Sinaloa|Guasave]] in [[Sinaloa]] is the most north-westerly point considered Mesoamerican.<ref name="gorenstein150">Foster, p. 150</ref>

Three archaeological cultures developed in the low, flat areas of the state near the coast: the Trincheras tradition, the Huatabampo tradition, and the Central Coast tradition. The Trincheras tradition is dated to between 750 and 1450 CE and mostly known from sites in the Altar, Magdalena, and Concepción valleys, but its range extended from the Gulf of California into northern Sonora. The tradition is named after trenches found in a number of sites, the best known of which is the Cerro de Trincheras. The Huatabampo tradition is centered south of the Trincheras along the coast, with sites along extinct lagoons, estuaries, and river valleys. This tradition has a distinctive ceramic complex. Huatabampo culture shows similarities with the [[Chametla]] to the south and the [[Hohokam]] to the north. This probably ended around 1000&nbsp;CE. Unlike the other two traditions, the Central Coast remained a hunter-gatherer culture, as the area lacks the resources for agriculture.<ref name="gorenstein18">Foster, p. 18</ref>

The higher elevations of the state were dominated by the [[Casas Grandes]] and [[Río Sonora tradition]]. The Río Sonora culture is located in central Sonora from the border area to modern Sinaloa. A beginning date for this culture has not been determined but it probably disappeared by the early 14th century. The Casas Grandes tradition in Sonora was an extension of the Río Sonora tradition based in the modern state of Chihuahua, which exerted its influence down to parts of the Sonoran coast.<ref name="gorenstein19">Foster, p. 19</ref><ref name="gorenstein251">Foster, p. 251</ref>

Climatic changes in the middle of the 15th century resulted in the increased [[desertification]] of northwest Mexico in general. This is the probable cause for the drastic decrease in the number and size of settlements starting around this time. The peoples that remained in the area reverted to a less complex social organization and lifestyle.<ref name="gorenstein252">Foster, p. 252</ref> Whatever socially complex organization existed in Sonora before the Spaniards was long gone by the 16th century.<ref name="gorenstein251"/>

=== Viceroyalty of New Spain ===
Little reliable information remains about the area in the 16th century following the [[Spanish conquest of the Aztec Empire]]. Some state that the first Spanish settlement was founded by Álvar Núñez Cabeza de Vaca in 1530, near [[Huépac]]. Others state that Francisco Vásquez de Coronado founded a village on the edge of the Yaqui River in 1540 on his way north.<ref name="gorenstein19"/><ref name="gorenstein252"/><ref name="enchistoria">{{cite web |url=http://www.e-local.gob.mx/wb2/ELOCAL/EMM_sonora |title=Historia |year=2010 |work=Enciclopedia de Los Municipios y Delegaciones de México Estado de Sonora |publisher=Instituto para el Federalismo y el Desarrollo Municipal |location=Mexico |language=es |trans-title=History |access-date=February 15, 2011 |archive-date=December 1, 2008 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081201232501/http://www.e-local.gob.mx/wb2/ELOCAL/EMM_sonora }}</ref> Another source states that the first Spanish presence was not until 1614, by missionaries such as [[Pedro Méndez (missionary)|Pedro Méndez]] and [[Pérez de Rivas]], working with the Mayo.<ref name="rincones37">Gonzalez, p. 37</ref> Unlike in central Mexico, no central social or economic centralization occurred in the Sonora area, given the collapse of population centers in the 15th century. The five traditions of the past had broken down to a number of fractured ethnicities. No empire or other system was present for the Spaniards to co-opt for domination purposes.<ref name="gorenstein19"/><ref name="gorenstein252"/> In addition, the Yaqui people resisted European intrusion on their lands, effectively keeping the Spaniards out of their area until the 17th century.<ref name="hamnett105">Hamnett, p. 105</ref> While exploration of the area happened through the expeditions of the 16th century, significant permanent Spanish settlement did not become possible until the establishment of the mission system.<ref name="gorenstein19"/><ref name="gorenstein252"/><ref name="gorenstein">Foster</ref><ref name="gorenstein241">Foster, p. 241</ref>

Jesuit priests began to work in Sonora in the 1610s in the lowlands near the coast. Originally, these missionaries worked out a peaceful compromise with the 30,000 Yaquis allowing for the establishment of more than fifty mission settlements in the Sonora river valleys. This broke down when the Jesuits opposed the native [[shaman]]ic religious tradition. The Opata were more receptive to the missionaries and allied with them. After this, the Jesuits began to move into [[Pima people|Pima]] and [[Tohono O'odham]] territories.<ref name="hamnett105"/> Spanish exploration and missionary work was sufficient to consider the territory part of [[New Spain]]. An agreement between General {{ill|Pedro de Perea|es}} and the [[viceroy]] of New Spain resulted in the general shaping of the province, initially called ''Nueva Navarra'' in 1637, but renamed ''Sonora'' in 1648.<ref name="rincones37"/>

The most famous missionary of Sonora, as well as much of what is now the [[Southwestern United States|American Southwest]], was [[Eusebio Kino]].<ref name="turhistoria">{{cite web |url=http://www.sonoraturismo.gob.mx/conoce-sonora/historia-de-sonora/ |title=Historia de Sonora |publisher=Government of Sonora |location=Sonora Mexico |language=es |trans-title=History of Sonora |access-date=February 15, 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110202081817/http://www.sonoraturismo.gob.mx/conoce-sonora/historia-de-sonora/ |archive-date=February 2, 2011 }}</ref> He arrived in Sonora in 1687 and started missionary work in the [[Pimería Alta]] area of Sonora and Arizona. He began his first mission at Cucurpe, then established churches and missions in other villages such as [[Spanish missions in the Sonoran Desert|Los Remedios, Imuris, Magdalena, Cocóspera, San Ignacio, Tubutama and Caborca]]. To develop an economy for the natives, Father Kino also taught them European farming techniques.<ref name="enchistoria"/><ref name="rincones38">Gonzalez, p. 38</ref>

The initial attraction of Sonora for the Spaniards was its fertile farmlands along the river valleys<ref name="yetman4"/> and its position as part of a corridor linking the central Mexican highlands around [[Mexico City]] up the Pacific coast and on into Arizona and points north. This corridor still exists in the form of [[Mexican Federal Highway 15|Federal Highway 15]].<ref name="gorenstein139">Foster, p. 139</ref> After the establishment of the mission system, Spanish colonists followed. Indigenous response was a mixture of accommodation and violence, as different strategies were employed by different groups at different times. The sporadic violence, which would continue throughout the colonial period, resulted in the Spanish building [[presidio]]s and other fortifications to protect missions and Spanish settlements.<ref name="enchistoria"/><ref name="hamnett105"/> While the colonization process was not especially violent, the impact on the indigenous of the area was severe, as it almost completely disrupted their formerly very independent lives, forcing them to conform to an alien centralized system. One consequence of this was alcoholism among the native peoples.<ref name="rincones37"/>

In 1691, what are now the states of Sonora and Sinaloa were joined into an entity called the ''Provincias de Sonora, Ostimuri, y Sinaloa''. They would remain as such through the rest of the colonial period until 1823.<ref name="rincones38"/> At this time, about 1,300 Spanish settlers were in the area.<ref name="hamnett107">Hamnett, p. 107</ref> Colonization increased in the 18th century, especially from 1700 to 1767, when mineral deposits were discovered, especially in [[Álamos]]. This led to the establishment of a number of royally controlled mining camps, forcing many natives off their agricultural lands. Loss of said lands along the [[Yaqui River|Yaqui]] and [[Mayo River (Mexico)|Mayo River]]s led to native uprisings during this time.<ref name="rincones37"/> A major [[Seri people|Seri]] rebellion took place on the coast area in 1725–1726, but the largest uprising was by the Yaquis and Mayos from 1740 to 1742 with the goal of expelling the Spaniards. Part of the reason for the rebellion was that the Jesuits, as well as the secular Spaniards, were exploiting the indigenous. This rebellion destroyed the reputation of the Jesuit mission system. Another Seri rebellion occurred in 1748, with Pima and Tohono O'otham support and lasted into the 1750s. This kept the settlement situation in disarray. With population of the Mexican split half indigenous and half Spanish, about one-quarter of the indigenous population lived in Sonora alone.<ref name="hamnett108">Hamnett, p. 108</ref> In 1767, the king of Spain expelled the Jesuits from Spanish-controlled territories, ending the mission system.<ref name="rincones3738">Gonzalez, pp. 37–38</ref>

===Independence===
In 1821, the colonial era in Sonora was ended by the [[Mexican War of Independence]], which started in 1810. Without being directly involved in the war, Sonora became part of an independent Mexico, which allowed for economic development. The former province of ''Sonora, Ostimuri, y Sinaloa'' was divided in 1823 to form the states of Sonora and Sinaloa, with the Sonoran capital in [[Ures]].<ref name="rincones38"/> They were reunited in 1824 but became separate again in 1831, when Sonora wrote its first state constitution, which put the capital in [[Hermosillo]].<ref name="turhistoria"/> In 1832, the capital was moved to [[Arizpe]].<ref name="rincones38"/>

In 1835, the government of Sonora put a bounty on the [[Apache]] which, over time, evolved into a payment by the government of 100 pesos for each [[Scalping|scalp]] of a male 14 or more years old. [[James L. Haley]] wrote: "In 1835, Don Ignacio Zúñiga, who was the long-time commander of the presidios of northern Sonora, asserted that since 1820 the Apaches had killed at least five thousand settlers, which convinced another four thousand to flee, forced the abandonment of over one hundred settlements, and caused the virtual depopulation of the interior frontier. ... The state of Sonora resorted to paying a bounty on Apache scalps in 1835."<ref>James L. Haley (1981). "''[https://books.google.com/books?id=RAfJwmMeq5IC Apaches: A History and Culture Portrait]''". University of Oklahoma Press. pp. 50–51. {{ISBN|0-8061-2978-6}}</ref>

The [[Reform War|struggles]] between the Conservatives, who wanted a centralized government, and Liberals, who wanted a federalist system, affected the entire country during the 19th century. In 1835, a centralist government was instituted based on what were called the ''Bases Constitucionales'' ("Constitutional Bases"). They were followed by the ''Siete Leyes Constitucionales'' ("Seven Constitutional Laws"), which remained in effect until 1837. But in December of the same year, General [[José de Urrea]] proclaimed in Arizpe the re-establishment of the Constitution of 1824, initially supported by then-Governor [[Manuel Gándara]]. However, for the rest of the century, Gándara and succeeding governors would support a centralized government, leading to political instability in the state.<ref name="enchistoria"/><ref name="rincones38"/> In 1838, the capital was moved back to Ures.<ref name="enchistoria"/>

The fertile lands of the Mayo and Yaquis continued to attract outsiders during the 19th century. These were now Mexicans rather than Spaniards, and later in the century, it was a major draw for North Americans.<ref name="yetman4"/> By the end of the 19th century, however, the area received large numbers of immigrants from [[Europe]], especially from [[Germany]], [[Italy]], and [[Russia]], the [[Middle East]], mainly [[Lebanon]] or [[Syria]], and even [[China]],<ref name="leerob92">Lee, p. 92</ref> who brought new forms of agriculture, mining, livestock, industrial processes, ironwork, and textiles.<ref name="turhistoria"/>

The [[Mexican–American War]] resulted in only one major military confrontation between Mexican and United States forces, but its consequences were severe for the state. In October 1847, the warship [[USS Cyane (1837)|USS ''Cyane'']] laid siege to [[Guaymas]] Bay, resulting in United States control of this part of the coast until 1848.<ref name="rincones38"/><ref name="acercapuerto">{{cite web |url=http://www.puertodeguaymas.com/acerca-del-puerto |title=Acerca del puerto |publisher=Administración Portuaria Integral de Guaymas, SA de C V |location=Guaymas, Mexico |language=es |trans-title=About the Port |access-date=January 13, 2011 |archive-date=May 14, 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110514121214/http://www.puertodeguaymas.com/acerca-del-puerto }}</ref> When the war ended, Sonora lost 339,370 hectares (13,200 square miles) of its territory to the United States through the [[Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo]]. Additionally, the war ruined the state's economy.<ref name="rincones38"/> Sonora lost more territory in the 1850s, through the [[Gadsden Purchase]]. Before the war, Sonora was the largest State in Mexico. The State lost more than 29,000 square miles to the United States as a result of the 1853 Gadsden Purchase. The majority of the area is today's Arizona south of the [[Gila River]] and a part of the present-day southwestern New Mexico.<ref name="enchistoria"/> The area's political vulnerability immediately after the war made it susceptible to buccaneers such as [[William Walker (filibuster)|William Walker]], [[Gaston de Raousset-Boulbon]], and [[Henry Alexander Crabb]], who attacked Sonoran ports such as Guaymas and [[Caborca]]. However, most attacks were repelled.<ref name="enchistoria"/> The economy did not begin to recover from the war until the late 1850s, when [[Ignacio Pesqueira]] became governor and attracted foreign investment to the state, especially in the mining sector, as well as worked to create markets abroad for agricultural products.<ref name="rincones38"/>

During the [[Second Mexican Empire]], Sonora was taken over by French and Mexican Imperial troops as part of the [[Conservative Party (Mexico)|Mexican conservative party]]'s election of [[Maximilian I of Mexico|Maximilian I]] as [[Emperor of Mexico]]. The port of Guaymas was attacked by forces under Armando Castagny, forcing Mexican forces under Pesqueira and General Patoni to retreat north of the city. Imperial troops attacked the republicans again ''La Pasión'', again resulting in defeat for the republican resistance. The French and Mexican Imperialists were not defeated in the state until the [[Battle of Llanos de Ures]] in 1866 by Pesqueira, Jesús García Morales and Ángel Martínez.<ref name="turhistoria"/><ref name="rincones39">Gonzalez, p. 39</ref> Shortly after this, the state's current constitution was written in 1871, and its capital was permanently moved to Hermosillo.<ref name="enchistoria"/><ref name="mediofisico"/>

[[File:Cajeme2.jpg|thumb|upright|[[Cajemé]], Yaqui resistance leader]]
During the regime of [[Porfirio Díaz]] from the late 19th century to the 20th century, major economic changes occurred. These changes promoted rapid economic growth, which had far-reaching social and political consequences. Sonora and the rest of the northern states rapidly increased in economic importance. Development of a rail system integrated the state's economy into the national, and also allowed greater federal control over all of Mexico's territory. After 1880, this rail system was extended north into the United States, making it an important part of binational economic relations to this day.<ref name="hamnett184">Hamnett, p. 184</ref> However, the changes also permitted foreigners and certain Mexicans to take over very large tracts of land in Mexico. In Sonora, [[Guillermo Andrade]] controlled {{Convert|1,570,000|ha|km2 sqmi}}, [[Manuel Peniche]] and American [[William Cornell Green]] about {{Convert|500,000|ha|km2 sqmi}}. Foreign industry owners also tended to bring in Asian and European workers.<ref name="enchistoria"/> [[Chinese immigration to Mexico|Chinese immigration]] into Sonora would begin at this time, and the Chinese soon became an economic force as they built small businesses that spread wherever economic development occurred.<ref name="leerob8992">Lee, pp. 89–92</ref>

The appropriation of land for both agriculture and mining placed renewed pressure on the Yaquis and other native peoples of Sonora. Previously, active resistance had given the Yaqui fairly autonomous control of a portion of the state and kept their agricultural system along the Yaqui River. Encroachment on this land led to uprisings and guerilla warfare by the Yaquis after 1887. By 1895, the federal and state governments began to violently repress the Yaquis and forcefully relocate captured Yaquis to the plantations in Mexico's tropical south, especially the [[henequen]] plantations in the [[Yucatán Peninsula]]. The Yaqui resistance continued into the 20th century, with the expulsions reaching a peak between 1904 and 1908, by which time about one-quarter of this population had been deported. Still more were forced to flee into Arizona.<ref name="hamnett191">Hamnett, p. 191</ref>

===20th century===
[[File:Cananea.jpg|thumb|The Cananea miners' strike 1906]]
The policies of the Díaz government caused resentment not only among the Yaquis, but also throughout the country.<ref name="hamnett192">Hamnett, p. 192</ref> One of the preludes to the [[Mexican Revolution]] was the [[Cananea strike|1906 Cananea miner's strike]]. Approximately 2,000 strikers sought negotiations with American mine owner William Greene, but he refused to meet with them. The strike quickly turned violent when the miners tried to take control of the mine and gunfire was exchanged. Greene requested help from federal troops, but when it was obvious they could not arrive in time, he appealed to the governments of Arizona and Sonora to allow Arizona volunteers to assist him. This increased the scale of the violence. When Mexican federal troops arrived two days later, they put everything to a brutal end, with the suspected leaders of the strike executed. The heavy-handed way in which Díaz had handled the strike made resentment against Diaz grow, with more strikes beginning in other areas.<ref name="kirkwood127">{{cite book |last= Kirkwood |first= Burton |title= History of Mexico |url= https://archive.org/details/historyofmexico00burt |url-access= registration |year=2000 |publisher= Greenwood Press |location= Westport, CT, USA |isbn= 978-1-4039-6258-4 |page=[https://archive.org/details/historyofmexico00burt/page/127 127]}}</ref><ref name="rincones3940">Gonzalez, pp. 39–40</ref>

In late 1910, the Mexican Revolution began in earnest, and Díaz was quickly deposed. The governor of [[Coahuila]], [[Venustiano Carranza]], sought refuge in Sonora, and became one of the principal political leaders during the rest of the war, with his main base of operations in Hermosillo. A number of the revolutionary leaders who joined Carranza in Sonora did not come from peasant backgrounds, but rather the lower middle class of hacienda-managers, shopkeepers, mill-workers, or schoolteachers, who opposed large-scale landowners and the Porfirian elite.<ref name="hamnett220">Hamnett, p. 220</ref> After Díaz was deposed, Carranza competed for power against [[Álvaro Obregón]] and others.<ref name="rincones3940"/> The Yaquis joined with Álvaro Obregón's forces after 1913.<ref name="hamnett192"/>

By 1920, Carranza had become president of Mexico, but found himself opposed by Obregón and others. Carranza tried to suppress political opposition in Sonora, which led to the [[Plan of Agua Prieta]], which formalized the resistance to Carranza by Obregón and his allies (primarily [[Abelardo L. Rodríguez]], [[Benjamín G. Hill|Benjamín Hill]] and [[Plutarco Elías Calles]]). This movement soon dominated the political situation, but it caused widespread political instability in doing so.<ref name="kirkwood152">{{cite book |last= Kirkwood |first= Burton |title= History of Mexico |url= https://archive.org/details/historyofmexico00burt |url-access= registration |year=2000 |publisher= Greenwood Press |location= Westport, CT, USA |isbn= 978-1-4039-6258-4 |page=[https://archive.org/details/historyofmexico00burt/page/152 152]}}</ref> Obregón deposed Carranza and became the next president of Mexico. For the 1924 presidential elections, Obregón chose to succeed himself Plutarco Elias Calles, who was also a revolutionary leader from Sonora.<ref name="kirkwood161">{{cite book |last= Kirkwood |first= Burton |title= History of Mexico |url= https://archive.org/details/historyofmexico00burt |url-access= registration |year=2000 |publisher= Greenwood Press |location= Westport, CT, USA |isbn= 978-1-4039-6258-4 |page=[https://archive.org/details/historyofmexico00burt/page/161 161]}}</ref> This effectively ended the war, but hostilities had again destroyed the Sonoran economy.<ref name="rincones3940"/> From 1920 to the early 1930s, four Sonorans came to occupy the Mexican presidency: [[Adolfo de la Huerta]], Obregón, Calles and Rodríguez.<ref name="turhistoria"/>

The Chinese first arrived at Guaymas in the late 19th century and congregated there and in Hermosillo. Over the following decades, they moved into growing communities such as [[Magdalena de Kino|Magdalena]] and [[Cananea]]. Rather than working in the fields, most started their own small businesses, networking with other Chinese.<ref name="leerob92"/> These businesses spanned a wide range of industries from manufacturing to retail sales of nearly every type of merchandise.<ref name="leerob94">Lee, p. 94</ref> The Chinese in Sonora not only become successful shopkeepers, they eventually came to control local small businesses in many areas of the state.<ref name="leerob89">Lee, p. 89</ref> By 1910, the Chinese population in Sonora was 4,486 out of a total population of 265,383, making them the largest foreign presence in the state, with only North Americans a close second at 3,164. Almost none were female, as there were only 82 Chinese females in the entire country at the time. The Chinese population reached its peak in 1919 with 6,078 people, again with almost no Chinese women.<ref name="leerob89"/>
[[File:Colonia Centro Nogales.jpg|thumb|upright|Colonia Centro, calle Pierson, Nogales]]

Resentment against Chinese success began quickly, and [[Sinophobia]] rose sharply during the Mexican Revolution as many Chinese prospered despite the war, and many attacks were targeted against them.<ref name="leerob94"/> The first organized anti-Chinese campaign in Sonora began in 1916 in Magdalena.<ref name="leerob98">Lee, p. 98</ref> A more serious campaign began in 1925, calling for their expulsion from the state.<ref name="leerob103">Lee, p. 103</ref> Mass expulsions were mostly carried out in Sonora and Sinaloa, partly because of their large populations, but the Chinese, often with their Mexican wives and children, were deported from all over the country. Some were returned to China but many others were forced to enter the United States through the border with Sonora, even though Chinese exclusion laws were still in effect there.<ref name="camacho546">{{cite journal |last1= Schiavone Camacho |first1= Julia Maria |date=November 2009 |title=Crossing Boundaries, Claiming a Homeland: The Mexican Chinese Transpacific Journey to Becoming Mexican, 1930s–1960s |journal= Pacific Historical Review |location=Berkeley |volume=78 |issue=4 |page=546 |doi=10.1525/phr.2009.78.4.545}}</ref> Sonoran governor [[Rodolfo Elias Calles]] was responsible for the expulsion of most Chinese-Mexican families into United States territory. Despite the diplomatic problems this caused, Elias Calles did not stop the expulsions until he himself was expelled from Sonora. However, by that time almost all of Sonora's Chinese-Mexicans had disappeared.<ref name="beatriz75">{{Cite thesis |degree=B.A. |title= Immigraciones chinas a Mexico durante el periodo Obregon-Calles (1920–1928) |author= Maria Enriqueta Beatriz Guajardo Peredo |year=1989 |publisher= Escuela Nacional de Antropolgía e Historia INAH-SEP |page=75}}</ref> By the 1940 census, only 92 Chinese were still living in Sonora, with more than two-thirds of these having acquired Mexican citizenship. This had the unintended consequence of nearly collapsing the Sonoran economy.<ref name="augustine">{{cite journal |last1=Augustine-Adams |first1=Kif |date=Spring 2009 |title=Making Mexico: Legal Nationality, Chinese Race, and the 1930 Population Census |journal=Law and History Review |publisher=University of Illinois |volume=27 |issue=1 |url=http://www.historycooperative.org/journals/lhr/27.1/adams.html |doi=10.1017/S073824800000167X |pages=113–144 |s2cid=145640831 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110511122727/http://www.historycooperative.org/journals/lhr/27.1/adams.html |archive-date=2011-05-11 }}</ref>

The efforts at modernization and economic development begun in the Díaz period would continue through the Revolution and on through the rest of the 20th century. In the late 19th and early 20th centuries, the process of electrification greatly increased the demand for [[copper]], which led to a boom in mining in Sonora and neighboring Arizona. Cananea grew very quickly from a village of 900 to a city of 20,000. It also led to a network of roads, railroads and other connections across the border.<ref name="truett17">{{cite book |title= Fugitive Landscapes: The Forgotten History of the U.S.-Mexico Borderlands |last= Truett |first= Samuel |author2=William P. Clements  |year=2006 |publisher= Yale University Press |location= New Haven, CT, USA |isbn= 978-0-300-11091-3 |page=17}}</ref> However, organized development of the state's agriculture was put on hold because of the Revolution, the [[Great Depression]] and other political upheavals.<ref name="yetman5">Yetman, p. 5</ref>

In the 1930s, Sonora benefitted from a number of national policies aimed at developing the cities on the border with the United States and at building a number of dams to help develop agriculture and the general water supply.<ref name="rincones40">Gonzalez, p. 40</ref> Major agricultural reform was begun in the 1940s in the [[Mayo River (Mexico)|Mayo River]] area, when the delta was cleared of natural vegetation and made into farmland. Water for these farms was secure through the building of the Mocúzari Dam about {{Convert|15|mi|km}} from [[Navojoa]]. When it was completed in 1951, there was a system of canals, wells and highways to support large-scale agriculture for shipment to other places.<ref name="yetman5"/>

In the last half of the 20th century, the state's population has grown and foreign investment has increased due to its strategic location along the border and its port of Guaymas. More than 200 international and domestic enterprises moved into the state, allowing for the development of modern infrastructure such as highways, ports and airports, making the state one of the best connected in the country. A bridge was built over the [[Colorado River]] to link Sonora with neighboring [[Baja California]] in 1964. One important sector of the economy has been industry, culminating in the Ford automotive plant in Hermosillo and a number of assembly plants called maquiladoras on the border with the United States. One of the fastest-growing sectors of the economy has been tourism, now one of the most important sectors of the economy, especially along the coast, with the number of visitors there increasing every year. This has led to a surge in hotel infrastructure, especially in [[Puerto Peñasco]].<ref name="rincones40"/>
[[File:Puentec.JPG|thumb|Bridge over the Colorado River in Sonora]]

For most of the 20th century, Mexico was dominated by the [[Institutional Revolutionary Party]] (PRI). Discontent with this one-party system became prominent in the northern states of Mexico, including Sonora. As early as 1967, a competing party, the [[National Action Party (Mexico)|National Action Party]] (PAN), won control of the city government of Sonora's capital, Hermosillo.<ref name="hamnett268">Hamnett, p. 268</ref> PAN won important municipal victories in the state in 1983, which President [[Miguel de la Madrid|de la Madrid]] refused to officially recognize but was forced to let stand.<ref name="eisenstadt171">Eisenstadt, p. 171</ref> PAN's growing strength by the 1980s forced the PRI to nominate candidates who were similar to PAN, successful business executives who favored economic liberalization over traditional Mexican statism, preferred in the north of the country. Institutional Revolutionary Party won the Sonoran gubernatorial race in 1985, but it was heavily contested with obvious problems of fraud.<ref name="eisenstadt54">Eisenstadt, p. 54</ref> By the 1990s, PRI operatives caught manipulating election results were actually prosecuted by the Sonoran state attorney.<ref name="eisenstadt178">Eisenstadt, p. 178</ref> This along with other events in the country eventually led to the end of the one-party system when [[Vicente Fox]] was elected president in 2000. PAN has since dominated most of the north of the country, but Sonora did not have its first PAN governor until 2009, with the election of [[Guillermo Padrés Elías]].<ref name="porvez">{{cite news |title= Por vez primera PAN gobernará Sonora |url= http://www.elsiglodetorreon.com.mx/noticia/445126.html |newspaper=El Siglo de Torreón |location=Torreon, Mexico |date=July 7, 2009 |access-date=February 15, 2011 |language=es |trans-title=PAN will govern Sonora for the first time}}</ref>

Sonora's border with Arizona has received more attention since 2000, with the increase of illegal border crossings and drug smuggling, especially in rural areas such as around [[Naco, Sonora|Naco]], which is one of the main routes into the United States.<ref name="flores">{{cite journal |last=Flores |first=Nancy |date=May 2007 |title=Narcotráfico en Sonora |trans-title=Drugtrafficing in Sonora |journal=Revista Contralínea |url=http://www.contralinea.com.mx/archivo/2007/mayo2/htm/Narco_Sonora.htm |language=es |access-date=December 17, 2009 |archive-date=June 16, 2009 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090616153355/http://www.contralinea.com.mx/archivo/2007/mayo2/htm/Narco_Sonora.htm }}</ref> Starting in the 1990s, increased border patrols and the construction of corrugated metal and chain link fences in California and Texas dramatically cut illegal border crossing in these two states. This led illegal immigrants into the more dangerous desert areas of Arizona and New Mexico, which have mostly seen rises in illegal crossings since then.<ref name="crossingsrise">{{cite news |title= Illegal migrant crossings rise in Arizona |agency= Associated Press |url= http://www.azcentral.com/news/articles/2010/05/18/20100518arizona-has-more-migrants-crossing-from-mexico.html |newspaper= AZ Central |date= May 18, 2010 |access-date=February 11, 2011}}</ref><ref name="natgeo">{{cite journal |date=May 2007 |title= U.S.-Mexico Border |journal= National Geographic |url= http://ngm.nationalgeographic.com/2007/05/us-mexican-border/bowden-text.html|archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20080803011725/http://ngm.nationalgeographic.com/2007/05/us-mexican-border/bowden-text.html|archive-date= August 3, 2008}}</ref> Many migrants now come to the Arizona border between [[Agua Prieta]] and [[Nogales, Sonora|Nogales]], with Naco as one of the preferred routes for "coyotes" (also called "polleros" or "enganchadores") or smugglers who offer to take migrants across.<ref name="flores"/><ref name="gonzalez">{{cite news |title=Naco, punto de confluencia de coyotes en busca de migrantes, a quienes extorsionan una y otra vez |first=Eduardo |last=Gonzalez Velazquez |url=http://www.lajornadajalisco.com.mx/2008/02/25/index.php?section=politica&article=010n1pol |newspaper=La Jornada de Jalisco |location=Guadalajara, Mexico |date=February 25, 2008 |access-date=December 17, 2009 |language=es |trans-title=Naco, gathering point of coyotes looking for migrants, who they extort again and again |archive-date=October 17, 2009 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20091017020907/http://www.lajornadajalisco.com.mx/2008/02/25/index.php?section=politica&article=010n1pol }}</ref> Migrant shelters and hotel in border towns cater to those waiting to cross into Arizona.<ref name="showsperils">{{cite news |title= Mexican map shows perils of crossing: But some in the U.S. fear handouts will encourage migrants |first=Hugh |last= Dellios |newspaper=Knight Ridder Tribune Business News |date=January 25, 2006 |page=1}}</ref> Providing lodging for migrants is a growing business in Naco and other border towns, where the rate is between 200 and 300 [[Mexican peso|pesos]] per night per person. Many of these lodgings are filled with people who cannot cross the border.<ref name="gonzalez"/> One example is the Hospedaje Santa María, which is a run-down, two-story building.<ref name="natgeo"/>
[[File:Mexican-American border at Nogales.jpg|thumb|right|Picture of the border between Arizona, on the left, and Sonora, on the right]]

Forty-five percent of the deaths of migrants occur on the Arizona side of the border.<ref name="gonzalez"/> According to Arizonan authorities, 2010 was a record year for deaths in Arizona for people crossing illegally from Sonora, with the bodies of 252 crossers found in the deserts between the [[New Mexico]] and California borders. This broke the previous record of 234 in 2007, with nearly 2,000 found in this area since 2001.<ref name="mccombs">{{cite news |title= AZ border saw record 252 deaths in fiscal '10 |first= Brady |last= McCombs |url= http://azstarnet.com/news/local/border/article_c50f048f-acf9-52a9-8863-6e5969360091.html |newspaper= Arizona Daily Star |date= October 5, 2010 |access-date=February 11, 2011}}</ref> However, Mexican officials state that the figures are higher, with over four hundred dying in Arizona deserts in 2005 alone. In 2006, Mexican officials began to distribute maps of Arizona to Mexicans gathered in Sonoran border town with the intention of crossing illegally. The Mexican government stated the reason for the maps was to help Mexican avoid dangerous areas that have caused deaths from the desert's heat.<ref name="showsperils"/>

Migration and drug smuggling problem has affected most border towns. Many people make a living by catering migrants or working as "coyote" guides.<ref name="natgeo"/> People hoping to cross the border and those recently deported crowd the border area; some of these people return home, but many others decide to stay on the Sonoran border, working to earn money for another attempt. These workers put a strain on insufficient municipal medical services.<ref name="gonzalez"/> The walls, which have shut down much of the illegal crossing into Texas and California, have also been built on parts of the Arizona border, especially between towns such as the two Nacos and the two Nogaleses. The wall in Naco is four meters high and made of steel. It currently extends {{Convert|7.4|km|mi}}, but there are plans to extend it another {{Convert|40|km|mi}}. Security there was further tightened after the 2001 [[September 11 attacks]]. The [[United States Border Patrol|U.S. Border Patrol]] credits the wall and better surveillance technology with cutting the number of captured border crossers near Naco by half in 2006. People on both sides of the wall have mixed feelings about it.<ref name="natgeo"/>

Violence connected to drug smuggling on the border and in Mexico in general has caused problems with tourism, an important segment of the entire country. Federal troops have been stationed here due to the violence, which has the population divided. While the security they can provide is welcomed, there is concern about the violation of human rights. In 2005, the state began advertising campaigns to reassure Arizonans that it is safe to cross the border.<ref name="ustravel">{{cite news |title= Mexico campaigns to counter U.S. travel advisory |first=Tim |last= Steller |newspaper=Knight Ridder Tribune Business News |date=February 19, 2005 |page=1}}</ref><ref name="cruz">{{cite news |title=Acribillan a dos Cajemenses en Naco |first=Gregorio |last=Cruz |url=http://www.elregionaldesonora.com.mx/acribillan-a-dos-cajemenses-en-naco.html |newspaper=El Regional de Sonora |location=Hermosillo, Sonora |date=October 30, 2009 |access-date=December 17, 2009 |language=es |trans-title=Shot two from Cajeme in Naco |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100127074501/http://www.elregionaldesonora.com.mx/acribillan-a-dos-cajemenses-en-naco.html |archive-date=January 27, 2010 }}</ref>