Editing Sintering (section)

== Ceramic sintering ==
{{More citations needed section|date=July 2023}}
Sintering is part of the firing process used in the manufacture of [[pottery]] and other ceramic objects. Sintering and [[vitrification]] (which requires higher temperatures) are the two main mechanisms behind the strength and stability of ceramics. Sintered ceramic objects are made from substances such as [[glass]], [[alumina]], [[zirconia]], [[silica]], [[magnesia (mineral)|magnesia]], [[Lime (mineral)|lime]], [[beryllium oxide]], and [[ferric oxide]]. Some ceramic raw materials have a lower [[Chemical affinity|affinity]] for water and a lower [[plasticity index]] than [[clay]], requiring organic additives in the stages before sintering.

Sintering begins when sufficient temperatures have been reached to mobilize the active elements in the ceramic material, which can start below their melting point (typically at 50–80% of their melting point<ref>{{Citation |last1=Leriche |first1=Anne |title=Sintering of Ceramics |date=2017 |url=https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/B9780128035818102887 |work=Reference Module in Materials Science and Materials Engineering |access-date=2023-07-04 |publisher=Elsevier |language=en |doi=10.1016/b978-0-12-803581-8.10288-7 |isbn=978-0-12-803581-8 |last2=Cambier |first2=Francis |last3=Hampshire |first3=Stuart}}</ref>), e.g. as [[premelting]]. When sufficient sintering has taken place, the ceramic body will no longer break down in water; additional sintering can reduce the porosity of the ceramic, increase the bond area between ceramic particles, and increase the material strength.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Hansen |first=Tony |title=Sintering |url=https://digitalfire.com/glossary/sintering |access-date=2023-07-04 |website=digitalfire.com}}</ref>

Industrial procedures to create ceramic objects via sintering of powders generally include:<ref>{{Cite web |last=admin |date=2023-02-02 |title=Ceramic Sintering Explained |url=https://www.wundermold.com/what-stages-powder-sintering-process/ |access-date=2023-07-04 |website=Wunder-Mold |language=en-US}}</ref>

* mixing water, [[Binder (material)|binder]], [[deflocculant]], and unfired ceramic powder to form a [[slurry]]
*[[Spray drying|spray-drying]] the slurry
* putting the spray dried powder into a mold and pressing it to form a green body (an unsintered ceramic item)
* heating the green body at low temperature to burn off the binder
* sintering at a high temperature to fuse the ceramic particles together.

All the characteristic temperatures associated with phase transformation, glass transitions, and melting points, occurring during a sinterisation cycle of a particular ceramic's formulation (i.e., tails and frits) can be easily obtained by observing the expansion-temperature curves during [[optical dilatometer]] thermal analysis. In fact, sinterisation is associated with a remarkable shrinkage of the material because glass phases flow once their transition temperature is reached, and start consolidating the powdery structure and considerably reducing the porosity of the material.

Sintering is performed at high temperature. Additionally, a second and/or third external force (such as pressure, electric current) could be used. A commonly used second external force is pressure. Sintering performed by only heating is generally termed "pressureless sintering", which is possible with graded metal-ceramic composites, utilising a nanoparticle sintering aid and bulk molding technology. A variant used for 3D shapes is called [[hot isostatic pressing]].

To allow efficient stacking of product in the furnace during sintering and to prevent parts sticking together, many manufacturers separate ware using ceramic powder separator sheets. These sheets are available in various materials such as alumina, zirconia and magnesia. They are additionally categorized by fine, medium and coarse particle sizes. By matching the material and particle size to the ware being sintered, surface damage and contamination can be reduced while maximizing furnace loading.