Editing Sigmund Freud (section)

=== Early life and education ===
[[File:Pribor - Birthplace of Sigmund Freud.jpg|right|thumb|alt=photograph|Freud's birthplace, a rented room in a locksmith's house, [[Příbor|Freiberg]], [[Austrian Empire]] ([[Příbor]], [[Czech Republic]])]]
[[File:AmaliaFreud.jpg|right|thumb|alt=photograph|upright|Freud (aged 16) and his mother, [[Amalia Freud|Amalia]], in 1872]]

Sigmund Freud was born to [[Ashkenazi Jewish]] parents in the [[Moravia]]n town of [[Příbor|Freiberg]],<ref>{{Cite web |title=Digitized Birth Records of Freiberg (Zemský archiv v Opavě) |url=https://digi.archives.cz/da/permalink?xid=be85d01a-f13c-102f-8255-0050568c0263&scan=3196614d700349279f6de3a8330b224a |access-date=18 July 2021 |website=digi.archives.cz}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Sigmund Freud &#124; Biography, Theories, Works, & Facts |url=https://www.britannica.com/biography/Sigmund-Freud |website=Encyclopedia Britannica|date=2 May 2023 }}</ref> in the [[Austrian Empire]] (in Czech Příbor, now [[Czech Republic]]), the first of eight children.<ref name="Gresser">Gresser 1994, p. 225.</ref> Both of his parents were from [[Galicia (Eastern Europe)|Galicia]]. His father, [[Jacob Freud|Jakob Freud]], a wool merchant, had two sons, Emanuel and Philipp, by his first marriage. Jakob's family were [[Hasidic Judaism|Hasidic Jews]] and, although Jakob himself had moved away from the tradition, he came to be known for his [[Torah study]]. He and Freud's mother, [[Amalia Freud|Amalia Nathansohn]], who was 20 years younger and his third wife, were married by Rabbi [[Isaac Noah Mannheimer]] on 29 July 1855.<ref name="Emanuel">{{Cite book |last=Emanuel Rice |title=Freud and Moses: The Long Journey Home |publisher=SUNY Press |year=1990 |isbn=978-0-7914-0453-9 |page=55}}</ref> They were struggling financially and living in a rented room, in a locksmith's house at Schlossergasse 117 when their son Sigmund was born.<ref>Gay 2006, pp. 4–8; Clark 1980, p. 4.
* For Jakob's Torah study, see [https://books.google.com/books?id=Y2KGVuym5OUC&pg=PA233 Meissner 1993, p. 233].
* For the date of the marriage, see [https://books.google.com/books?id=JhbDnT74kWEC&pg=PA55 Rice 1990, p. 55].</ref> He was born with a [[caul]], which his mother saw as a positive [[omen]] for the boy's future.<ref>{{Cite journal |author=<!-- field: -->Deborah P. Margolis, M.A.<!-- field: --> |url=http://www.pep-web.org/document.php?id=MPSA.014.0037A |title=Margolis 1989 |journal=Mod. Psychoanal |pages=37–56 |access-date=17 January 2014 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140223112728/http://www.pep-web.org/document.php?id=MPSA.014.0037A |archive-date=23 February 2014|year=1989}}</ref>

In 1859, the [[Freud family]] left Freiberg. Freud's half-brothers immigrated to [[Manchester]], England, parting him from the "inseparable" playmate of his early childhood, Emanuel's son, John.<ref>Jones, Ernest (1964) ''Sigmund Freud: Life and Work.'' Edited and abridged by Lionel Trilling and Stephen Marcus. Harmondsworth: Penguin Books p. 37.</ref> Jakob Freud took his wife and two children (Freud's sister, Anna, was born in 1858; a brother, Julius born in 1857, had died in infancy) firstly to [[Leipzig]] and then in 1860 to [[Vienna]] where four sisters and a brother were born: Rosa (b. 1860), Marie (b. 1861), Adolfine (b. 1862), Paula (b. 1864), Alexander (b. 1866). In 1865, the nine-year-old Freud entered the {{lang|de|Leopoldstädter Kommunal-Realgymnasium}}, a prominent high school. He proved to be an outstanding pupil and graduated from the [[Matura]] in 1873 with honors. He loved literature and was proficient in German, French, Italian, Spanish, English, [[Hebrew language|Hebrew]], [[Latin]] and [[Greek language|Greek]].<ref>Hothersall 2004, p. 276.</ref>

Freud entered the University of Vienna at age 17. He had planned to study law, but joined the medical faculty at the university, where his studies included philosophy under [[Franz Brentano]], physiology under [[Ernst Wilhelm von Brücke|Ernst Brücke]], and zoology under [[Darwinist]] professor [[Carl Friedrich Wilhelm Claus|Carl Claus]].<ref>Hothersall 1995<!--page number?--></ref> In 1876, Freud spent four weeks at Claus's zoological research station in [[Trieste]], dissecting hundreds of eels in an inconclusive search for their male reproductive organs.<ref>See "[[Eel life history#Past studies of eels|past studies of eels]]" and references therein.</ref> In 1877, Freud moved to Ernst Brücke's physiology laboratory where he spent six years comparing the brains of humans with those of other vertebrates such as frogs, [[lampreys]] as well as also invertebrates, for example [[crayfish]]. His research work on the biology of nervous tissue proved seminal for the subsequent discovery of the [[neuron]] in the 1890s.<ref>{{cite news |last=Costandi |first=Mo |title=Freud was a pioneering neuroscientist |url=https://www.theguardian.com/science/neurophilosophy/2014/mar/10/neuroscience-history-science |work=[[The Guardian]] |date=10 March 2014 |access-date=16 May 2018}}<br>In this period he published three papers:
* {{cite book |last=Freud |first=Sigmund |title=Über den Ursprung der hinteren Nervenwurzeln im Rückenmark von Ammocoetes (Petromyzon Planeri) |publisher=na |trans-title=On the Origin of the Posterior Nerve Roots in the Spinal Cord of [[Ammocoetes]] ([[Petromyzon planeri|Petromyzon Planeri]]) |url=https://archive.org/details/b3047467x |year=1877|language=de}}
* {{cite book |last=Freud |first=Sigmund |title=Über Spinalganglien und Rückenmark des Petromyzon |trans-title=On the Spinal Ganglia and Spinal Cord of [[Petromyzon]] |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=c9I7mgEACAAJ |year=1878|language=de}}
* {{cite journal |last=Freud |first=Sigmund |title=A New Histological Method for the Study of Nerve-Tracts in the Brain and Spinal Cord |journal=[[Brain (journal)|Brain]] |date=April 1884 |volume=7 |issue=1 |pages=86–88 |doi=10.1093/brain/7.1.86|url=https://zenodo.org/record/1935710 }}
For a more in-depth analysis: {{cite book |last1=Gamwell |first1=Lynn|author1-link= Lynn Gamwell |last2=Solms |first2=Mark |author-link2=Mark Solms |title=From Neurology to Psychoanalysis |url=https://www.curezone.org/upload/PDF/From_NEUROLOGY_to_PSYCHOANALYSIS_by_Sigmund_Freud.pdf |year=2006 |publisher=[[Binghamton University Art Museum]] |location=[[State University of New York]] |pages=29–33, 37–39|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170830064321/https://www.curezone.org/upload/PDF/From_NEUROLOGY_to_PSYCHOANALYSIS_by_Sigmund_Freud.pdf |archive-date=30 August 2017}}</ref> Freud's research work was interrupted in 1879 by the obligation to undertake a year's compulsory military service. The lengthy downtimes enabled him to complete a commission to translate four essays from [[John Stuart Mill]]'s collected works.<ref>Gay 2006 p. 36.</ref> He graduated with an [[Doctor of medicine|MD]] in March 1881.<ref>[[Frank Sulloway|Sulloway]] 1992 [1979], p. [https://books.google.com/books?id=B7XcblnI620C&pg=PA22 22].</ref>