Editing Shia Islam (section)

==History==
{{main|History of Shia Islam}}

The original Shia identity referred to the followers of Imam ʿAlī,<ref>"Shiʻite Islam", by Allamah Sayyid Muhammad Husayn Tabataba'i, translated by Sayyid Husayn Nasr, State University of New York Press, 1975, p. 24</ref> and Shia theology was formulated after the ''[[Hijra (Islam)|hijra]]'' (8th century CE).<ref>Dakake (2008), pp. 1–2</ref> The first Shia governments and societies were established by the end of the 9th century CE. The 10th century CE has been referred to by the scholar of Islamic studies [[Louis Massignon]] as "the Shiite Ismaili century in the history of Islam".<ref>In his "Mutanabbi devant le siècle ismaëlien de l'Islam", in Mém. de l'Inst Français de Damas, 1935, p.</ref>

=== Origins ===
{{main|Origin of Shia Islam|Ali ibn Abi Taleb|First Fitna}}

[[File:Investiture of Ali Edinburgh codex.jpg|thumb|The investiture of [[Ali|ʿAlī ibn Abī Ṭālib]] at [[Rabigh#Ghadir Khumm|Ghadir Khumm]] ([[The Remaining Signs of Past Centuries|MS Arab 161]], fol. 162r, 1308–1309 CE, [[Ilkhanate|Ilkhanid]] manuscript illustration)]]

The Shia, originally known as the "partisans" of [[Ali|ʿAlī ibn Abī Ṭālib]], Muhammad's cousin and [[Fatima]]'s husband, first emerged as a distinct movement during the [[First Fitna]] from 656 to 661 CE. Shia doctrine holds that ʿAlī was meant to lead the community after Muhammad's death in 632. Historians dispute over the [[History of Shia Islam|origins of Shia Islam]], with many Western scholars positing that Shīʿīsm began as a political faction rather than a truly religious movement.<ref>See: Lapidus p. 47, Holt p. 72</ref><ref name="franc23">Francis Robinson, ''Atlas of the Islamic World'', p. 23.</ref> Other scholars disagree, considering this concept of religious-political separation to be an anachronistic application of a Western concept.<ref>Jafri, S.H. Mohammad. "The Origin and Early Development of Shiʻa Islam", Oxford University Press, 2002, p. 6, {{ISBN|978-0-19-579387-1}}</ref>

Shia Muslims believe that Muhammad designated ʿAlī ibn Abī Ṭālib as his heir during a speech at [[Ghadir Khumm]].<ref name=":2" /> The point of contention between different Muslim sects arises when Muhammad, whilst giving his speech, gave the proclamation "Anyone who has me as his {{transliteration|ar|[[mawla]]}}, has ʿAlī as his {{transliteration|ar|mawla}}".<ref name="jaarel 2015" /><ref>{{cite encyclopedia |title=Shiʿi |publisher=Encyclopedia Britannica |url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/Shii |access-date=28 December 2021 |last=Newman |first=Andrew J.}}</ref><ref name="Esposito, John 2002. p. 40">Esposito, John. "What Everyone Needs to Know about Islam". Oxford University Press, 2002 | {{ISBN|978-0-19-515713-0}}. p. 40</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=From the article on Shii Islam in Oxford Islamic Studies Online |url=http://www.oxfordislamicstudies.com/article/opr/t125/e2189?_hi=26&_pos=238 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120528231159/http://www.oxfordislamicstudies.com/article/opr/t125/e2189?_hi=26&_pos=238 |archive-date=28 May 2012 |access-date=4 May 2011 |publisher=Oxfordislamicstudies.com}}</ref> Some versions add the additional sentence "O God, befriend the friend of ʿAlī and be the enemy of his enemy".<ref name="Amir-Moezzi">{{cite encyclopedia |title=Ghadīr Khumm |entry=Ghadīr Khumm |encyclopedia=Encyclopaedia of Islam Three |date=2014 |author-link1=Mohammad Ali Amir-Moezzi |editor1=Kate Fleet |doi=10.1163/1573-3912_ei3_COM_27419 |last1=Amir-Moezzi |first1=Mohammad Ali |editor2=Gundrun Krämer |editor-link2=Gudrun Krämer |editor3=Denis Matringe |editor4=John Nawas |editor5=Everett Rowson}}</ref> Sunnis maintain that Muhammad emphasized the deserving friendship and respect for ʿAlī. In contrast, Shia Muslims assert that the statement unequivocally designates ʿAlī as Muhammad's appointed successor.<ref name="jaarel 2015" /><ref>{{cite book |last=Olawuyi |first=Toyib |url=https://www.al-islam.org/khilafah-ali-over-abu-bakr-toyib-olawuyi/preface |title=On the Khilafah of Ali over Abu Bakr |publisher=CreateSpace Independent Publishing Platform |year=2014 |isbn=978-1-4928-5884-3 |pages=3 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160422181325/http://www.al-islam.org/khilafah-ali-over-abu-bakr-toyib-olawuyi/preface |archive-date=22 April 2016 |url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=The Shura Principle in Islam – by Sadek Sulaiman |url=http://www.alhewar.com/SadekShura.htm |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160727210611/http://www.alhewar.com/SadekShura.htm |archive-date=27 July 2016 |access-date=18 June 2016 |website=www.alhewar.com}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |date=2016-01-04 |title=Sunnis and Shia: Islam's ancient schism |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-middle-east-16047709 |access-date=2021-08-14 |work=BBC News |language=en-GB}}</ref> Shia sources also record further details of the event, such as stating that those present congratulated ʿAlī and acclaimed him as {{transliteration|ar|[[Amir al-Mu'minin]]}} ("commander of the believers").<ref name="Amir-Moezzi" />

When Muhammad died in 632 CE, [[Ali|ʿAlī ibn Abī Ṭālib]] and Muhammad's closest relatives made the funeral arrangements. While they were preparing his body, [[Abu Bakr|Abū Bakr]], [[Umar ibn al-Khattab|ʿUmar ibn al-Khaṭṭāb]], and [[Abu Ubaidah ibn al Jarrah]] met with the leaders of Medina and elected Abū Bakr as the first ''[[Rashidun|rāshidūn]]'' caliph. Abū Bakr served from 632 to 634, and was followed by Umar (634–644) and [[Uthman ibn Affan|ʿUthmān]] (644–656).<ref name=":2" />
[[File:Kufa Mosque.jpg|thumb|[[Great Mosque of Kufa]], site of ʿAlī's assassination (661 CE)<ref name="Merriam-Webster 1999, p. 525" /><ref name="Esposito, John 2002. p. 46" />]]
With the murder of ʿUthmān in 657 CE, the Muslims of [[Medina]] invited ʿAlī to become the fourth caliph as the last source,<ref name="Merriam-Webster 1999, p. 525" /> and he established his capital in [[Kufa]].<ref name="Britannica738" /> ʿAlī's rule over the [[Rashidun Caliphate|early Islamic empire]], between 656 CE to 661 CE, was often contested.<ref name=":2" /> Tensions eventually led to the [[First Fitna]], the first major [[civil war]] between Muslims within the empire, which began as a series of revolts fought against ʿAlī. While the rebels had previously affirmed the legitimacy of ʿAlī's ''khilafāʾ'' (caliphate), they later turned against ʿAlī and fought him.<ref name="Merriam-Webster 1999, p. 525" /> Tensions escalated into the [[Battle of the Camel]] in 656, where Ali's forces emerged victorious against [[Aisha]], [[Talha ibn 'Ubayd Allah|Talhah]], and [[Abd Allah ibn al-Zubayr|al-Zubayr]]. However, the [[Battle of Siffin]] in 657 turned the tide against ʿAlī, who lost due to arbitration issues with [[Muawiyah I|Muawiyah]], the governor of Damascus.<ref name=":2" /> ʿAlī withdrew to Kufa, overcoming the [[Kharijites|Kharijis]], a faction that had transformed from supporters to bitter rivals, at Nahrawan in 658. In 661, ʿAlī was assassinated by a Khariji assassin in Kufa while in the act of prostration during prayer ({{transliteration|ar|[[sujud]]}}). Subsequently, Muawiyah asserted his claim to the caliphate.<ref>The New Encyclopædia Britannica, 15th ed., Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc., 1998, {{ISBN|0-85229-663-0}}, Vol. 10, p. tid738</ref><ref name="Esposito, John 2002. p. 46" />

=== Hasan, Husayn, and Karbala ===
{{main|Hasan ibn Ali|Husayn ibn Ali|Battle of Karbala}}
[[File:Bagh Toti 8167.jpg|left|thumb|[[Shah Abdol-Azim Shrine|S̲h̲āh ʿAbd al-ʿAẓīm Shrine]] in [[Ray, Iran|Rey]], [[Iran]], contains the tomb of [[Abd al-Azim al-Hasani|ʿAbd al-ʿAẓīm al-Ḥasanī]], a descendant of [[Hasan ibn Ali|Ḥasan ibn ‘Alī]] and a companion of [[Muhammad al-Taqi|Muhammad al-Taqī]].]]

Upon the death of ʿAlī, his elder son [[Hasan ibn Ali|Ḥasan]] became leader of the Muslims of Kufa. After a series of skirmishes between the Kufa Muslims and the army of Muawiyah, Ḥasan ibn Ali agreed to cede the caliphate to Muawiyah and maintain peace among Muslims [[Hasan–Mu'awiya treaty|upon certain conditions]]: The [[Umayyad tradition of cursing Ali|enforced public cursing of ʿAlī]], e.g. during prayers, should be abandoned; Muawiyah should not use tax money for his own private needs; There should be peace, and followers of Ḥasan should be given security and their rights; Muawiyah will never adopt the title of ''[[Amir al-Mu'minin]]'' ("commander of the believers"); Muawiyah will not nominate any successor.<ref>{{cite web |title="Solhe Emam Hassan"-Imam Hassan Sets Peace |url=http://www.valiasr-aj.com/fa/page.php?bank=question&id=1297 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130311022151/http://www.valiasr-aj.com/fa/page.php?bank=question&id=1297 |archive-date=11 March 2013}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |title=تهذیب التهذیب |page=271}}</ref> Ḥasan then retired to [[Medina]], where in 670 CE he was poisoned by his wife [[Ja'da bint al-Ash'ath]], after being secretly contacted by Muawiyah who wished to pass the caliphate to his own son [[Yazid ibn Mu'awiyah|Yazid]] and saw Ḥasan as an obstacle.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Madelung|first=Wilfred|title="Ḥasan b. ʿAli b. Abi Ṭāleb". [[Encyclopædia Iranica]]. Retrieved 7 November 2018|year=2003}}</ref>[[File:Brooklyn Museum - Battle of Karbala - Abbas Al-Musavi - overall.jpg|thumb|right|250px|''Battle of Karbala'', painting by the [[Isfahan]]-based Persian artist Abbas Al-Mousavi, [[Brooklyn Museum]] (between 1868 and 1933)]]

[[Husayn ibn Ali|Ḥusayn ibn ʿAlī]], ʿAlī's younger son and brother to Ḥasan, initially resisted calls to lead the Muslims against Muawiyah and reclaim the caliphate. In 680 CE, Muawiyah died and passed the caliphate to his son [[Yazid I|Yazid]], and breaking the treaty with Ḥasan ibn ʿAlī. Yazid asked Husayn to swear allegiance (''[[bay'ah]]'') to him. ʿAlī's faction, having expected the caliphate to return to ʿAlī's line upon Muawiyah's death, saw this as a betrayal of the peace treaty and so Ḥusayn rejected this request for allegiance. There was a groundswell of support in Kufa for Ḥusayn to return there and take his position as caliph and Imam, so Ḥusayn collected his family and followers in Medina and set off for Kufa.<ref name=":2" />

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| footer            = Left: the [[Imam Husayn Shrine|Shrine of Imam Ḥusayn]]; right: the shrine premises during [[Arba'een]]
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En route to Kufa, Husayn was blocked by an army of Yazid's men, which included people from Kufa, near [[Karbala]]; rather than surrendering, Husayn and his followers chose to fight. In the [[Battle of Karbala]], Ḥusayn and approximately 72 of his family members and followers were killed, and Husayn's head was delivered to Yazid in Damascus. The Shi'a community regard Ḥusayn ibn ʿAlī as a martyr (''[[shahid]]''), and count him as an Imam from the {{transliteration|ar|Ahl al-Bayt}}. The Battle of Karbala and martyrdom of Ḥusayn ibn ʿAlī is often cited as the [[Shia–Sunni relations|definitive separation between the Shia and Sunnī sects of Islam]]. Ḥusayn is the last Imam following ʿAlī mutually recognized by all branches of Shia Islam.<ref>Discovering Islam: making sense of Muslim history and society (2002) Akbar S. Ahmed</ref> The martyrdom of Husayn and his followers is commemorated on the [[Ashura|Day of Ashura]], occurring on the tenth day of Muharram, the first month of the Islamic calendar.<ref name=":2" />

===Imamate of the ''Ahl al-Bayt''===
{{main|Imamate in Shia doctrine}}

[[File:Sword and shield reproduction from Bab al Nasr gate Cairo Egypt.jpg|thumb|right|''[[Zulfiqar]]'' with and without the shield. The [[Fatimid art|Fatimid depiction]] of ʿAlī's sword is carved on the gates of [[Old Cairo]], namely ''Bab al-Nasr'' (shown below). Two swords were captured from the temple of the [[Religion in pre-Islamic Arabia|pre-Islamic Arabian deity]] [[Manāt]] during the [[Raid of Sa'd ibn Zaid al-Ashhali]]. Muhammad gave them to ʿAlī, saying that one of them was "Zulfiqar", which became famously known as the sword of ʿAlī and a later symbol of Shīʿīsm.<ref>{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=tMVkAAAAMAAJ |title=Religious trends in pre-Islamic Arabic poetry |first=Ghulam |last=Mustafa |year=1968 |page=11 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150906045928/https://books.google.com/books?id=tMVkAAAAMAAJ |archive-date=6 September 2015 |quote=Similarly, swords were also placed on the Idols, as it is related that Harith b. Abi Shamir, the Ghassanid king, had presented his two swords, called Mikhdham and Rasub, to the image of the goddess, Manat....to note that the famous sword of Ali, the fourth caliph, called Dhu-al-Fiqar, was one of these two swords}}</ref>]]
[[File:Sword and shield from the Bab al Nasr gate, Cairo Egypt.jpg|thumb|Depiction of ʿAlī's sword and shield carved on the ''Bab al-Nasr'' gate wall in [[Islamic Cairo]], [[Egypt]]]]
Later, most denominations of Shia Islam, including [[Twelver Shi'ism|Twelvers]] and [[Isma'ilism|Ismāʿīlīs]], became [[Imamate in Shia doctrine|Imamis]].<ref name="jaarel 2015" /><ref name="franc46">{{cite web |date=13 January 2015 |title=Lesson 13: Imam's Traits |url=http://www.al-islam.org/principles-shiite-creed-ayatullah-ibrahim-amini/lesson-13-imams-traits |url-status=live |archive-url=https://archive.today/20150209161456/http://www.al-islam.org/principles-shiite-creed-ayatullah-ibrahim-amini/lesson-13-imams-traits |archive-date=9 February 2015 |work=Al-Islam.org}}</ref><ref>{{Cite encyclopedia |year=2012 |title=Ahl al-BMatt |entry=Ahl al- Bayt |encyclopedia=Encyclopaedia of Islam |publisher=Brill |editor=P. Bearman |edition=2nd |doi=10.1163/1573-3912_islam_SIM_0378 |author2=van Arendonk, C. |author3=Tritton, A.S. |author=Goldziher, I. |editor2=Th. Bianquis |editor3=C.E. Bosworth |editor4=E. van Donzel |editor5=W.P. Heinrichs}}</ref> Imami Shīʿītes believe that Imams are the spiritual and political [[Succession to Muhammad|successors to Muhammad]].<ref name=":1">{{Cite web|title=امامت از منظر متکلّمان شیعی و فلاسفه اسلامی|url=http://ensani.ir/fa/article/69853/%D8%A7%D9%85%D8%A7%D9%85%D8%AA-%D8%A7%D8%B2-%D9%85%D9%86%D8%B8%D8%B1-%D9%85%D8%AA%DA%A9%D9%84%D9%91%D9%85%D8%A7%D9%86-%D8%B4%DB%8C%D8%B9%DB%8C-%D9%88-%D9%81%D9%84%D8%A7%D8%B3%D9%81%D9%87-%D8%A7%D8%B3%D9%84%D8%A7%D9%85%DB%8C|access-date=2021-08-28|website=پرتال جامع علوم انسانی|language=fa|archive-date=28 August 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210828162637/http://ensani.ir/fa/article/69853/%D8%A7%D9%85%D8%A7%D9%85%D8%AA-%D8%A7%D8%B2-%D9%85%D9%86%D8%B8%D8%B1-%D9%85%D8%AA%DA%A9%D9%84%D9%91%D9%85%D8%A7%D9%86-%D8%B4%DB%8C%D8%B9%DB%8C-%D9%88-%D9%81%D9%84%D8%A7%D8%B3%D9%81%D9%87-%D8%A7%D8%B3%D9%84%D8%A7%D9%85%DB%8C|url-status=dead}}</ref> Imams are human individuals who not only rule over the Muslim community with justice, but also are able to keep and interpret the divine law and its [[Esoteric interpretation of the Quran|esoteric meaning]]. The words and deeds of Muhammad and the Imams are a guide and model for the community to follow; as a result, they must be free from error and sin, and must be chosen by [[Nass (Islam)|divine decree]] ({{transliteration|ar|nass}}) through Muhammad.<ref name="Nasr_a">Nasr (1979), p. 10</ref><ref name="Momen 1985, p. 174">{{harvnb|Momen|1985|p=174}}</ref> According to this view peculiar to Shia Islam, there is always an Imam of the Age, who is the divinely appointed authority on all matters of faith and law in the Muslim community. ʿAlī was the first Imam of this line, the rightful successor to Muhammad, followed by male descendants of Muhammad through his daughter Fatimah.<ref name=":1" /><ref>{{Cite book|last=عسکری|first=سید مرتضی|title=ولایت علی در قرآن کریم و سنت پیامبر، مرکز فرهنگی انتشاراتی منیر، چاپ هفتم}}</ref>
[[File:Santuario de Fátima bint Musa, Qom, Irán, 2016-09-19, DD 15.jpg|left|thumb|[[Fatima Masumeh Shrine]] in [[Qom]], [[Iran]], which contains the mausoleum of [[Fatima bint Musa|Fatima Masumeh]], the daughter of [[Musa al-Kazim]] and sister of [[Ali al-Rida|Imam Reza]], the 7th and 8th [[Imamah (Shia doctrine)|Imams]] in [[Twelver Shi'ism|Twelver Shīʿīsm]].]]
This difference between following either the ''[[Ahl al-Bayt]]'' (Muhammad's family and descendants) or pledging allegiance to Abū Bakr has shaped the [[Shia–Sunni relations|Shia–Sunnī divide]] on the interpretation of some Quranic verses, [[Hadith|hadith literature]] (accounts of the sayings and living habits attributed to the [[Islamic prophet]] [[Muhammad]] during his lifetime), and other areas of Islamic belief throughout the [[history of Islam]]. For instance, the [[List of hadith collections|hadith collections]] venerated by Shia Muslims are centered on narrations by members of the ''Ahl al-Bayt'' and their supporters, while some hadith transmitted by narrators not belonging to or supporting the ''Ahl al-Bayt'' are not included. Those of [[Abu Hurairah]], for example, Ibn Asakir in his ''Taʿrikh Kabir'', and Muttaqi in his ''Kanzuʿl-Umma'' report that [[Umar ibn al-Khattab|ʿUmar ibn al-Khaṭṭāb]] lashed him, rebuked him, and forbade him to narrate ''ḥadīth'' from Muhammad. ʿUmar is reported to have said: "Because you narrate hadith in large numbers from the Holy Prophet, you are fit only for attributing lies to him. (That is, one expects a wicked man like you to utter only lies about the Holy Prophet.) So you must stop narrating hadith from the Prophet; otherwise, I will send you to the land of Dus." (An [[Tribes of Arabia|Arab clan]] in [[Yemen]], to which Abu Hurairah belonged). According to Sunnī Muslims, ʿAlī was the fourth successor to Abū Bakr, while Shia Muslims maintain that ʿAlī was the first divinely sanctioned "Imam", or successor of Muhammad. The seminal event in Shia history is the martyrdom at the [[Battle of Karbala]] of ʿAlī's son, [[Husayn ibn Ali|Ḥusayn ibn ʿAlī]], and 71 of his followers in 680 CE, who led a non-allegiance movement against the defiant caliph.

It is believed in Twelver and Ismāʿīlī branches of Shia Islam that [['Aql|divine wisdom]] (''ʿaql'') was the source of the souls of the prophets and Imams, which bestowed upon them [[Hikmah|esoteric knowledge]] (''ḥikmah''), and that their sufferings were a means of divine grace to their devotees.<ref>Corbin 1993, pp. 45–51</ref><ref>Nasr (1979), p. 15</ref> Although the Imam was not the recipient of a [[Wahy|divine revelation]] (''waḥy''), he had a close relationship with [[God in Islam|God]], through which God guides him, and the Imam, in turn, guides the people. [[Imamate in Shia doctrine|Imamate]], or belief in the divine guide, is a fundamental belief in the Twelver and Ismāʿīlī branches of Shia Islam, and is based on the concept that God would not leave humanity without access to divine guidance.<ref name="Imamat">{{cite encyclopedia |encyclopedia=Encyclopaedia of Islam and the Muslim world; vol.1 |last=Gleave |first=Robert |title=Imamate |publisher=Macmillan |isbn=978-0-02-865604-5|year=2004 }}</ref>

===Imam Mahdi, last Imam of the Shia===
{{main|Mahdi|Muhammad al-Mahdi|Occultation (Islam)|Reappearance of Hujjat Allah al-Mahdi}}
{{further|History of Shia Islam|Imamate in Shia doctrine}}
[[File:Ghazan et Öldjeïtu.jpg|thumb|right|upright=1.15|[[Ghazan]] and his brother [[Öljaitü]] both were tolerant of [[Islamic schools and branches|sectarian differences within the boundaries of Islam]], in contrast to the traditions of [[Genghis Khan]].]]

In Shia Islam, Imam [[Mahdi]] is regarded as the [[Islamic eschatology|prophesied eschatological redeemer of Islam]] who will rule for seven, nine, or nineteen years (according to differing interpretations) before the [[Day of Judgment]] and will rid the world of evil. According to Islamic tradition, the Mahdi's tenure will coincide with the [[Second Coming]] of [[Jesus in Islam|Jesus]] (ʿĪsā), who is to assist the Mahdi against the {{transliteration|ar|[[Masih ad-Dajjal]]}} (literally, the "false Messiah" or Antichrist). Jesus, who is considered the ''Masih'' ("[[Messiah]]") in Islam, will descend at the point of a white arcade east of [[Damascus]], dressed in yellow robes with his head anointed. He will then join the Mahdi in his war against the Dajjal, where it is believed the Mahdi will slay the Dajjal and unite humankind.

===Dynasties===
{{main|List of Shia dynasties}}

In the century following the [[Battle of Karbala]] (680 CE), as various Shia-affiliated groups diffused in the emerging Islamic world, several nations arose based on a Shia leadership or population.
*[[Idrisid dynasty|Idrisids]] (788–985 CE): a [[Zaydi]] dynasty in what is now [[Morocco]].
*[[Qarmatians]] (899–1077 CE): an [[Ismaili]] [[Iranian peoples|Iranian]] dynasty. Their headquarters were in [[Eastern Arabia]] and [[Bahrain]]. It was founded by [[Abu Sa'id al-Jannabi]].
*[[Buyid dynasty|Buyids]] (934–1055 CE): a [[Twelver]] [[Iranian peoples|Iranian]] dynasty. at its peak consisted of large portions of Iran and Iraq.
*[[Uqaylid Dynasty|Uqaylids]] (990–1096 CE): a Shia [[Arab]] dynasty with several lines that ruled in various parts of [[Al-Jazira, Mesopotamia|al-Jazira]], northern Syria and Iraq.
* [[Ilkhanate]] (1256–1335): a [[Persianate society|Persianate]] [[Mongol]] [[khanate]] established in [[Iran]] in the 13th century, considered a part of the [[Mongol Empire]]. The Ilkhanate was based, originally, on [[Genghis Khan]]'s campaigns in the [[Khwarezmid Empire]] in 1219–1224, and founded by Genghis's grandson, [[Hulagu Khan|Hulagu]], in territories in [[West Asia|Western]] and [[Central Asia]] which today comprise most of Iran, Iraq, Afghanistan, Turkmenistan, Armenia, Azerbaijan, Georgia, Turkey, and Pakistan. The Ilkhanate initially embraced many religions, but was particularly sympathetic to [[Buddhism]] and [[Christianity]]. Later Ilkhanate rulers, beginning with [[Ghazan]] in 1295, chose Islam as the [[state religion]]; his brother [[Öljaitü]] promoted Shia Islam.<ref>{{Cite web|title=نقد و بررسى گرایش ایلخانان به اسلام و تشیّع|url=http://ensani.ir/fa/article/45590/%D9%86%D9%82%D8%AF-%D9%88-%D8%A8%D8%B1%D8%B1%D8%B3%D9%89-%DA%AF%D8%B1%D8%A7%DB%8C%D8%B4-%D8%A7%DB%8C%D9%84%D8%AE%D8%A7%D9%86%D8%A7%D9%86-%D8%A8%D9%87-%D8%A7%D8%B3%D9%84%D8%A7%D9%85-%D9%88-%D8%AA%D8%B4%DB%8C%D9%91%D8%B9|access-date=2021-08-28|website=پرتال جامع علوم انسانی|language=fa|archive-date=12 April 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200412101802/http://ensani.ir/fa/article/45590/%D9%86%D9%82%D8%AF-%D9%88-%D8%A8%D8%B1%D8%B1%D8%B3%D9%89-%DA%AF%D8%B1%D8%A7%DB%8C%D8%B4-%D8%A7%DB%8C%D9%84%D8%AE%D8%A7%D9%86%D8%A7%D9%86-%D8%A8%D9%87-%D8%A7%D8%B3%D9%84%D8%A7%D9%85-%D9%88-%D8%AA%D8%B4%DB%8C%D9%91%D8%B9|url-status=dead}}</ref>
* [[Bahmani Sultanate|Bahmanids]] (1347–1527): a Shia Muslim state of the [[Deccan Plateau]] in [[Southern India]], and one of the great medieval Indian kingdoms.<ref>{{cite web
|url=http://orbat.com/site/cimh/kings_master/kings/ibrahimII_adil_shahi/5_provinces.html
|title=The Five Kingdoms of the Bahmani Sultanate
|publisher=orbat.com
|access-date=5 January 2007
|url-status=dead
|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070223071144/http://orbat.com/site/cimh/kings_master/kings/ibrahimII_adil_shahi/5_provinces.html
|archive-date=23 February 2007}}</ref> Bahmanid Sultanate was the first independent Islamic kingdom in Southern India.<ref name="Ansari">{{cite encyclopedia |url=http://www.iranica.com/newsite/home/index.isc |last=Ansari |first=N.H. |title=Bahmanid Dynasty |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20061019004703/http://www.iranica.com/newsite/home/index.isc |archive-date=19 October 2006 |url-status=usurped |publisher=Encyclopædia Iranica}}</ref>

[[File:Fatimid Caliphate.PNG|thumb|The [[Fatimid Caliphate]] at its peak ({{circa|1100}})]]

====Fatimid Caliphate====
[[File:El_Hakim_Mosque.jpg|thumb|upright=1.2|[[Al-Hakim Mosque]], named after [[al-Hakim bi-Amr Allah|al-Ḥākim bi-Amr Allāh]] (985–1021), the 6th [[Fatimid Caliphate|Fatimid]] caliph and 16th [[Isma'ilism|Ismāʿīlī]] Imam, in [[Islamic Cairo]], [[Egypt]].]]

* [[Fatimid dynasty|Fatimids]] (909–1171 CE): Controlled much of [[North Africa]], the [[Levant]], parts of [[Arabian Peninsula|Arabia]], and the holy cities of [[Mecca]] and [[Medina]]. The group takes its name from [[Fatima|Fāṭimah]], Muhammad's daughter, from whom they claim descent.
** In 909 CE, the Shia military leader [[Abu Abdallah al-Shi'i|Abu Abdallah al-Shiʻi]] overthrew the Sunni rulers in North Africa, an event which led to the foundation of the [[Fatimid Caliphate]].<ref name=":0">{{cite book |title=Worlds Together Worlds Apart |last=Pollard |first=Elizabeth |publisher=W.W. Norton Company Inc |year=2015 |isbn=978-0-393-91847-2 |location=New York |page=313}}</ref>
** [[Jawhar (general)|Al-Qaid Jawhar ibn Abdallah]] ({{langx|ar|جوهر}}; {{floruit}} 966–d. 992) was a Shia Fatimid general. Under the command of Caliph [[Al-Mu'izz li-Din Allah|al-Muʻizz]], he led the conquest of [[Islamic conquest of North Africa|North Africa]] and then of [[Islamic conquest of Egypt|Egypt]],<ref>{{cite book |author1=Chodorow, Stanley |author2=Knox, MacGregor |author3=Shirokauer, Conrad |author4=Strayer, Joseph R.|author5-link=Hans W. Gatzke |author5=Gatzke, Hans W. |title= The Mainstream of Civilization |publisher= Harcourt Press |year= 1994 |page= 209 |isbn= 978-0-15-501197-7 |quote=The architect of his military system was a general named Jawhar, an islamicized Greek slave who had led the conquest of North Africa and then of Egypt}}</ref> founded the city of [[Cairo]]<ref>{{cite book |author=Fossier, Robert |author2=Sondheimer, Janet |author3=Airlie, Stuart |author4=Marsack, Robyn |title= The Cambridge illustrated history of the Middle Ages |publisher= Cambridge University Press |year= 1997 |page= [https://archive.org/details/cambridgeillustr00robe/page/170 170] |isbn= 978-0-521-26645-1 |quote= When the Sicilian Jawhar finally entered Fustat in 969 and the following year founded the new dynastic capital, Cairo, 'The Victorious', the Fatimids ... |url= https://archive.org/details/cambridgeillustr00robe/page/170 }}</ref> and the [[al-Azhar Mosque]]. A [[History of slavery in the Muslim world|Greek slave by origin]], he was freed by al-Muʻizz.<ref>{{cite book |author= Saunders, John Joseph |title= A History of Medieval Islam |publisher= Routledge |year= 1990 |page=133 |isbn= 978-0-415-05914-5 |quote=Under Muʼizz (955-975) the Fatimids reached the height of their glory, and the universal triumph of Isma ʻilism appeared not far distant. The fourth Fatimid Caliph is an attractive character: humane and generous, simple and just, he was a good administrator, tolerant and conciliatory. Served by one of the greatest generals of the age, Jawhar al-Rumi, a former Greek slave, he took fullest advantage of the growing confusion in the Sunnite world.}}</ref>

====Safavid Empire====
{{main|Safavid dynasty|Safavid conversion of Iran to Shia Islam}}
[[File:Portrait of Shah Ismail I. Inscribed "Ismael Sophy Rex Pers". Painted by Cristofano dell'Altissimo, dated 1552-1568.jpg|alt=|thumb|One of the first actions performed by [[Ismail I|Ismā'īl I]] of the [[Safavid dynasty|Safavid Empire]] was the proclamation of the [[Twelver]] denomination of Shia Islam as the [[Safavid conversion of Iran to Shia Islam|official religion]] of [[Iran]], causing sectarian tensions in the [[Middle East]] when he destroyed the tombs of the [[List of Abbasid caliphs|Abbasid caliphs]], the Sunnī Imam [[Abu Hanifa an-Nu'man|Abū Ḥanīfa al-Nuʿmān]], and the [[Sufism|Ṣūfī Muslim]] ascetic [[Abdul Qadir Gilani|ʿAbdul Qādir Gīlānī]] in 1508.<ref name="Masters 2009">{{cite encyclopedia |author-last=Masters |author-first=Bruce |year=2009 |chapter=Baghdad |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=QjzYdCxumFcC&pg=PA71 |editor1-last=Ágoston |editor1-first=Gábor |editor2-first=Bruce |editor2-last=Masters |encyclopedia=Encyclopedia of the Ottoman Empire |location=[[New York City|New York]] |publisher=[[Facts On File]] |page=71 |isbn=978-0-8160-6259-1 |lccn=2008020716 |access-date=21 June 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160516202344/https://books.google.com/books?id=QjzYdCxumFcC&pg=PA71 |archive-date=16 May 2016 |url-status=live}}</ref> In 1533 the [[Ottoman Turks]], upon their conquest of [[Iraq]], rebuilt various important Sunnī shrines.<ref name="Masters 2009" /><ref>{{cite book|author1=Stanford J. Shaw|author2=Ezel Kural Shaw|title=History of the Ottoman Empire and Modern Turkey: Volume 1, Empire of the Gazis: The Rise and Decline of the Ottoman Empire 1280–1808|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=E9-YfgVZDBkC|year=1976|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=978-0-521-29163-7|access-date=10 February 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170111152233/https://books.google.com/books?id=E9-YfgVZDBkC|archive-date=11 January 2017|url-status=live}}</ref>]]
A major turning point in the [[history of Shia Islam]] was the dominion of the [[Safavid dynasty]] (1501–1736) in [[History of Iran|Persia]]. This caused a number of changes in the [[Muslim world]]:
* The ending of the relative mutual tolerance between Sunnīs and Shias that existed from the time of the [[Mongol conquests]] onwards and the resurgence of antagonism between the two groups.
* Initial dependence of [[Shia clergy|Shīʿīte clerics]] on the state followed by the emergence of an independent body of ''[[ulama]]'' capable of taking a political stand different from official policies.<ref>Francis Robinson, ''Atlas of the Muslim World'', p. 49.</ref>
* The growth in importance of [[Safavid Iran|Persian]] centers of Islamic education and religious learning, which resulted in the change of Twelver Shīʿīsm from being a predominantly [[Arab people|Arab]] phenomenon to become predominantly [[Persianization|Persian]].<ref>{{harvnb|Momen|1985|p=123}}</ref>
* The growth of the [[Akhbari]] school of thought, which taught that only the [[Quran]], [[Hadith|''ḥadīth'' literature]], and ''[[sunnah]]'' (accounts of the sayings and living habits attributed to the [[Islamic prophet]] [[Muhammad]] during his lifetime) are to be bases for verdicts, rejecting the use of reasoning.

With the fall of the Safavids, the state in Iran—including the state system of courts with government-appointed [[Judge (Islamic law)|judges]] (''qāḍī'')—became much weaker. This gave the [[Sharia|''sharīʿa'' courts]] of ''[[mujtahid]]'' an opportunity to fill the legal vacuum and enabled the ''ulama'' to assert their judicial authority. The [[Usuli]] school of thought also increased in strength at this time.<ref>{{harvnb|Momen|1985|pp=130, 191}}</ref>

<gallery>
File:The declaration of Shi'ism as the state religion of Iran by Shah Ismail -Safavids dynasty.jpeg|The declaration of [[Twelver|Twelver Shīʿīsm]] as the state religion of [[Safavid Persia|Safavids]]
File:Battle of Chaldiran (1514).jpg|[[Battle of Chaldiran]] in 1514 was a major [[Sectarian violence among Muslims|sectarian crisis between Muslims]] in the [[Middle East]].
File:Chaldiran Battlefield Site in 2004.JPG|Monument commemorating the [[Battle of Chaldiran]], where more than 7,000 [[Muslims]] of the Shia and Sunnī sects [[Sectarian violence among Muslims|killed each other]]
</gallery>