Editing Severus Alexander (section)

== Emperor ==

=== Early reign ===
[[File:Severus Alexander Ny Carlsberg Glyptotek IN1283.jpg|thumb|180px|left|Bust of young Severus Alexander, [[Ny Carlsberg Glyptotek]], Copenhagen]]
Severus Alexander became emperor when he was around 14 years old, making him the second youngest sole emperor in [[Roman Empire|Rome]]'s history, second only to [[Gordian III]], who was 13.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Boteva |first=Dilyana |date=2017 |title=Gordian III and Philip II on coin obverses with two face-to-face busts depicting Sarapis/Theos Megas |url=https://www.academia.edu/38598993 |journal=Ex Nummis Lux: Studies in Ancient Numismatics in Honour of Dimitar Dragano |pages=327–337}}</ref> Alexander's grandmother [[Julia Maesa|Maesa]] believed that he had more potential to rule and gain support from the [[Praetorian Guard]] than her other grandson, the increasingly unpopular emperor [[Elagabalus]].<ref name=women>Jasper Burns (2006). ''Great Women of Imperial Rome: Mothers and Wives of the Caesars''. London: Routledge, pp. 214–217. {{ISBN|1134131852}}</ref> Thus, to preserve her own position, she had Elagabalus adopt the young Alexander and then arranged for Elagabalus' assassination, securing the throne for Alexander.<ref>Wells, Colin (1997). ''The Roman Empire'', Harvard University Press.</ref> The Roman army hailed Alexander as emperor on 13 March 222, and the Senate ratified this the following day, conferring on him the titles of ''[[Augustus (title)|Augustus]]'', ''[[Pater patriae]]'' and ''[[Pontifex maximus]]''.<ref>''[[Feriale Duranum]]'' [http://papyri.info/ddbdp/rom.mil.rec;1;117 20–25]: iii I[d]us Ṃ[artias quod] Imp(erator) [Caesar M(arcus) Aurelius Severus Alexander im]peratọṛ ap[pellat]ụ[s... [Pridie Idu]ṣ [Martias q]uod Ạ[lexander Augustus no]ṣ[ter Augustus et Pater] [Patriae et Pontife]x̣ Max̣[imus appellatus s]ịṭ supp̣[licat]io.</ref>

Throughout his life, Alexander relied heavily on guidance from his grandmother, Maesa, before her death in 224, and mother, [[Julia Avita Mamaea|Julia Mamaea]].<ref name=women /> As a young, immature, and inexperienced adolescent, Alexander knew little about government, warcraft, or the role of ruling over an empire. In time, however, the army came to admire what Jasper Burns refers to as "his simple virtues and moderate behavior, so different from [Elagabalus]".<ref name=women />

===Domestic achievements===
Under the influence of his mother, Alexander did much to improve the morals and condition of the people, and to enhance the dignity of the state.{{sfn|Benario|2023}} He employed noted [[jurist]]s, such as [[Ulpian]],<ref name="Alexander Severus">{{cite web |title=Alexander Severus |url=https://www.worldhistory.org/Alexander_Severus/ |website=[[World History Encyclopedia]] |access-date=28 January 2021}}</ref> to oversee the administration of justice.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Cassius_Dio/80*.html#noteA|title = Cassius Dio – Epitome of Book 80}}</ref> His advisers were men like the [[Roman Senate|senator]] and historian [[Cassius Dio]], and historical sources claimed that with the help of his family, he created a select board of 16 senators,{{sfn|Southern|2001|p=60}} although this claim is sometimes disputed.<ref>{{cite book|last=de Blois|first=Lukas|editor-last=Kolb|editor-first=Anne|title=Herrschaftsstrukturen und Herrschaftspraxis. Konzepte, Prinzipien und Strategien der Administration im römischen Kaiserreich|publisher= Akademie Verlag|date=2006|pages=45–52|chapter=Administrative Strategies of the Emperor Severus Alexander and his Advisers}}</ref> Some scholars have rejected [[Herodian]]'s view that Alexander expanded senatorial powers.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Davenport|first=Caillan|date=2011|title=Iterated Consulships and the Government of Severus Alexander.|journal=Zeitschrift für Papyrologie und Epigraphik|volume=177|pages=282|jstor=41291183}}</ref> He also created a municipal council of 14 who assisted the [[urban prefect]] in administering the affairs of the 14 districts of Rome.<ref>[[Historia Augusta]], ''Life of Severus Alexander'', 33:1</ref> Excessive luxury and extravagance at the imperial court were diminished,<ref>[[Historia Augusta]], ''Life of Severus Alexander'', 15:1</ref> and he restored the [[Baths of Nero]] in 227 or 229; consequently, they are sometimes also known as the Baths of Alexander after him. He extended the imperial residence at the [[Horti Lamiani]] on the [[Esquiline Hill]] with elaborate buildings, and created the Nymphaeum of Alexander (known as the Trophies of Marius), which still stands in the Piazza Vittorio Emanuele. This was the great fountain he built at the end of the [[Aqua Claudia]] aqueduct.

Upon his accession he reduced the silver purity of the [[denarius]] from 46.5% to 43%{{snd}}the actual silver weight dropped from 1.41&nbsp;grams to 1.30&nbsp;grams; however, in 229 he revalued the denarius, increasing the silver purity and weight to 45% and 1.46&nbsp;grams. The following year he decreased the amount of base metal in the denarius while adding more silver, raising the silver purity and weight again to 50.5% and 1.50&nbsp;grams.<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.tulane.edu/~august/handouts/601cprin.htm |title=Tulane University 'Roman Currency of the Principate'|access-date=2011-03-18 |archive-date=2008-11-01 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081101003844/http://www.tulane.edu/~august/handouts/601cprin.htm |url-status=dead }}</ref> Additionally, during his reign taxes were lightened; literature, art and science were encouraged;<ref>[[Historia Augusta]], ''Life of Severus Alexander'', 21:6</ref> and, for the convenience of the people, loan offices were instituted for lending money at a moderate rate of interest.<ref>[[Historia Augusta]], ''Life of Severus Alexander'', 21:2</ref>

In religious matters, Alexander preserved an open mind. According to the ''Historia Augusta'', he wished to erect a temple to [[Jesus]] but was dissuaded by the [[Paganism|pagan]] priests; however, this claim is unreliable as the ''Historia Augusta'' is considered untrustworthy by historians, containing significant amounts of information that is false and even invented, extending to when it was written and the number of authors it was written by.<ref>[[Historia Augusta]], ''Life of Severus Alexander'', 43:6–7</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.livius.org/sources/content/historia-augusta/ |title=Historia Augusta – Livius |last= |first= |date=October 10, 2020 |website=[[Livius.org]] |publisher= |access-date=April 28, 2021 |quote=}}</ref> He allowed a [[synagogue]] to be built in Rome, and he gave as a gift to this synagogue a scroll of the [[Torah]] known as the [[Severus Scroll]].<ref name=jew/>

In legal matters, Alexander did much to aid the rights of his soldiers. He confirmed that soldiers could name anyone as heirs in their [[Will and testament|will]], whereas civilians had strict restrictions over who could become heirs or receive a legacy.{{sfn|Campbell|1984|p=221}} He also confirmed that soldiers could free their slaves in their wills,{{sfn|Campbell|1984|p=224}} protected the rights of soldiers to their property when they were on campaign,{{sfn|Campbell|1984|p=239}} and reasserted that a soldier's property acquired in or because of military service (his ''castrense peculium'') could be claimed by no one else, not even the soldier's father.{{sfn|Campbell|1984|p=234}}

===Military discipline===
Alexander's reign was also characterized by a significant breakdown of military discipline.{{sfn|Campbell|1984|p=196}} In 228, the [[Praetorian Guard]] murdered their [[Praetorian prefect|prefect]], Ulpian,{{sfn|Campbell|1984|p=196}} in Alexander's presence. Alexander could not openly punish the ringleader of the riot, and instead removed him to a nominal post of honor in [[Egypt]] and then [[Crete]], where he was "quietly put out of the way" sometime after the excitement had abated.<ref name="ledlie-ulpian">{{cite journal |last1=Ledlie |first1=James Crawford |title=Ulpian |journal=Journal of the Society of Comparative Legislation |date=1903 |volume=5 |issue=1 |page=19 |jstor=751768 }}</ref> The soldiers then fought a three-day battle against the populace of Rome, and this battle ended after several parts of the city were set on fire.{{sfn|Campbell|1984|p=197}}

Dio was among those who gave a highly critical account of military discipline during the time, saying that the soldiers would rather just surrender to the enemy.{{sfn|Campbell|1984|p=197}} Different reasons are given for this issue; Campbell points to <blockquote>...the decline in the prestige of the Severan dynasty, the feeble nature of Alexander himself, who appeared to be no soldier and to be completely dominated by his mother's advice, and lack of real military success at a time during which the empire was coming under increasing pressure.{{sfn|Campbell|1984|p=197}}</blockquote>
Herodian, on the other hand, was convinced that "the emperor's miserliness (partly the result of his mother's greed) and slowness to bestow donatives" were instrumental in the fall of military discipline under Alexander.{{sfn|Campbell|1984|p=197}}
===Persian War===
On the whole, Alexander's reign was prosperous until the rise of the [[Sassanid Empire|Sassanids]]{{sfn|Southern|2001|p=61}} under [[Ardashir I]].<ref>{{cite web|title=Severus Alexander |publisher=Encyclopædia Britannica Online Academic Edition. Encyclopædia Britannica Inc., 2014|access-date=2 May 2014|url= http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/536782/Severus-Alexander}}</ref> In 231 AD, Ardashir invaded the Roman provinces of the east, overrunning Mesopotamia and penetrating possibly as far as Syria and Cappadocia, forcing from the young Alexander a vigorous response.<ref>Arthur E.R. Boak (1921). ''A History Of Rome To 565 A.D.'', New York: The Macmillan Company, chap. XVIII., p. 258</ref> Of the war that followed there are various accounts. According to the most detailed authority, [[Herodian]], the Roman armies suffered a number of humiliating setbacks and defeats,<ref>[[Herodian]], 6:5–6:6</ref> while according to the [[Historia Augusta]]<ref>[[Historia Augusta]], ''Life of Severus Alexander'', 55:1–3</ref> as well as Alexander's own dispatch to the [[Roman Senate]], he gained great victories.{{sfn|Southern|2001|p=62}} Making [[Antioch]] his base, he organized in 233 a three-fold invasion of the [[Sassanian Empire]]; at the head of the main body he himself advanced to recapture northern [[Mesopotamia]], while another army invaded [[Media (region)|Media]] through the mountains of Armenia, and a third advanced from the south in the direction of [[Babylon]]. The northernmost army gained some success, fighting in mountainous territory favorable to the Roman infantry, but the southern army was surrounded and destroyed by Ardashir's skilful horse-archers, and Alexander himself retreated after an indecisive campaign, his army wracked by indiscipline and disease.<ref name=":0">[[Edward Gibbon]], ''The Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire'', (The Modern Library, 1932), chap. VIII., p. 182</ref><ref>Herodian, 6:5:10</ref> Further losses were incurred by the retreating northern army in the inclement cold of [[Roman Armenia|Armenia]] as it retired into winter quarters, due to a failure through incompetence to establish adequate supply lines.<ref>Herodian, 6:6:3</ref><ref name=":0" /> Still, Mesopotamia was retaken, and Ardashir was not thereafter able to extend his conquests, though his son, Shapur, would obtain some success later in the century.<ref name=":0" />

Although the Sassanids were checked for the time,{{sfn|Southern|2001|p=62}} the conduct of the [[Imperial Roman army|Roman army]] showed an extraordinary lack of discipline. In 232, there was a mutiny in the Syrian legion, which proclaimed [[Taurinus]] emperor.<ref>[[Epitome de Caesaribus]], 24:2</ref> Alexander managed to suppress the uprising, and Taurinus drowned while attempting to flee across the [[Euphrates]].<ref>{{Cite book|last=McHugh|first=John S|title=Emperor Alexander Severus: Rome's Age of Insurrection AD 222–235|publisher=Pen and Sword|year=2017|isbn=9781510708754|pages=184}}</ref> The emperor returned to Rome and celebrated a triumph in 233.{{sfn|Southern|2001|p=62}}

===Germanic War===
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A new and menacing enemy started to emerge directly after Alexander's success in the Persian war. In 234, the barbarians crossed the Rhine and Danube in hordes that caused alarm as far as Rome. The soldiers serving under Alexander, already demoralized after their costly war against the Persians, were further discontented with their emperor when their homes were destroyed by the barbarian invaders.{{sfn|Campbell|1984|p=54}}

As word of the invasion spread, the emperor took the front line and went to battle against the Germanic invaders. The Romans prepared heavily for the war, building a fleet to carry the entire army across. However, at this point in Alexander's career, he still knew little about being a general. Because of this, he hoped the mere threat of his armies would be sufficient to persuade the hostile tribes to surrender.<ref>{{cite web|title=Alexander Severus|date=14 December 2021|url=http://www.roman-empire.net/decline/alex-severus-index.html|publisher=Capitoline Museums}}</ref>  Severus enforced a strict military discipline in his men that sparked a rebellion among his legions.<ref name="Western Press Association">{{cite book|title=Library of World History: Containing a Record of the Human Race from the Earliest Historical Period to the Present Time; Embracing a General Survey of the Progress of Mankind in National and Social Life, Civil Government, Religion, Literature, Science and Art, Volume 3|publisher=Western Press Association|location=New York Public Library|page=1442}}</ref> Due to incurring heavy losses against the Persians, and on the advice of his mother, Alexander attempted to buy the Germanic tribes off, so as to gain time.<ref>[[Herodian]], 6:7</ref>

It was this decision that resulted in the [[Legionary|legionaries]] looking down upon Alexander. They considered him dishonorable and feared he was unfit to be Emperor. Under these circumstances the army swiftly looked to replace Alexander.<ref>[[Herodian]], 6:8</ref>

[[Maximinus Thrax|Gaius Julius Verus Maximinus]] was the next best option. He was a soldier from Thrace who had a golden reputation and was working hard to increase his military status.<ref name="Western Press Association"/> He was also a man with superior personal strength, who rose to his present position from a peasant background. With the Thracian's hailing came the end of the Severan Dynasty,<ref name="The Saylor Foundation">{{cite web|title=Severus Alexander (222–235 AD): The Calm before the Storm|url=http://www.saylor.org/site/wp-content/uploads/2013/02/HIST301-7.2-SeverusAlexander-FINAL.pdf |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/http://www.saylor.org/site/wp-content/uploads/2013/02/HIST301-7.2-SeverusAlexander-FINAL.pdf |archive-date=2022-10-09 |url-status=live|publisher=The Saylor Foundation}}</ref> and, with the growing animosity of Severus' army towards him, the path for his assassination was paved.